Environmental changes in biodiversity hotspot ecosystems of
South Ecuador: RESPonse and feedback effECTs (FOR2730)

Abstract:

The co-evolutionary arms race between herbivores and plants forces plants to evolve protection strategies that reduce the palatability of the plant modules attacked by the herbivores. These characteristics of traits have consequences for both the survival of plant individuals and the composition of plant communities. Thus, correlating traits of for instance leaves with herbivory is an important step toward understanding the dynamics of plant populations and communities. Traits can either be measured using conventional lab methods or recently developed spectral sensing techniques. We examined whether leaf traits of trees are related to herbivory in a multispecies approach. Furthermore, we explored whether leaf traits characterized by spectral sensing provide similar relations to herbivory as lab-based leaf traits. We established nine 1-ha square plots evenly distributed over three different forest types in Ecuadorian tropical montane rainforests where we estimated herbivory as the leaf area loss (in square centimeters) of 20 (±5) leaves sampled from the canopies of 380 tree individuals belonging to 51 tree species (7 ± 1 individuals/species) using lab- and spectral-sensing-based methods. For each methodological approach, we ran 100 linear mixed-effects models with all respective leaf traits as predictor and herbivory as response variables for data subsets containing one randomly selected tree individual of each species to estimate the range of the regression coefficients for each trait. Automated stepwise backward selections determined the frequency of each trait having an important influence on herbivory. We found no clear relations between leaf traits and herbivory for neither lab- nor spectral-sensing-based traits. A nested variance component analysis demonstrated that the observed variability was mainly due to the variation in trait concentrations between tree individuals of a species. Our results suggest that snapshot data lead to a mismatch between herbivory and the concentrations of traits during the peak of herbivory. Another explanation could be that environmental conditions or processes along the food web are more important in structuring herbivory than leaf traits.

Abstract:

High spatio-temporal variability is a characteristic of extreme rainfall. In mountainous regions like the Tropical Andes, where intricate orography and mesoscale atmospheric dynamics greatly impact rainfall systems, this particularly holds for mountain areas like the Tropical Andes. Thus, the absence of operational rainfall monitoring networks with high spatio-temporal resolution has imposed difficulties for a proper analysis of extreme rainfall events in the Ecuadorian Andes. Nowhere, we present our improved knowledge on rainfall extremes based on newly available rainfall radar data of this region. In our study we employ a clustering approach to identify types of extreme rainfall events and analyze their spatio-temporal characteristics. Based on 3 years of data obtained from an X-band scanning weather radar data, the study was conducted in the southern Ecuadorian Tropical Andes at 4450 m a.s.l. By applying a rainfall threshold, 67 extreme rainfall events were selected. The rainfall characteristics of each extreme rainfall event, such as the amount of rain, its duration, its hour, and month of occurrence were determined and used as input variables of a k-means clustering analysis to group the events into different classes. The result revealed three main classes of extreme rainfall events. The first class is characterized by highest rain intensity and lowest duration. The second class is characterized by its month of occurrence, during the first 5 months of the year. The third class showed lowest rain intensity and highest duration mainly occurred at higher elevations. The typology of events advances our understanding of the spatio-temporal characteristics of extreme rainfall in the Tropical Andes.

Abstract:

In tropical forests, herbivorous arthropods remove between 7% up to 48% of leaf area, which has forced plants to evolve defense strategies. These strategies influence the palat- ability of leaves. Palatability, which reflects a syndrome of leaf traits, in turn influences both the abundance and the mean body mass not only of particular arthropod taxa but also of the total communities. In this study, we tested two hypotheses: (H1) The abundance of two important chewer guilds (‘leaf chewers’ and ‘rostrum chewers’), dominant components of arthropod communities, is positively related to the palatability of host trees. (H2) Lower pal- atability leads to an increased mean body mass of chewers (Jarman-Bell principle). Arthro- pods were collected by fogging the canopies of 90 tropical trees representing 31 species in three plots at 1000 m and three at 2000 m a.s.l. Palatability was assessed by measuring several ‘leaf traits’ of each host tree and by conducting a feeding trial with the generalist her- bivore Gryllus assimilis (Orthoptera, Gryllidae). Leaf traits provided partial support for H1, as abundance of leaf chewers but not of rostrum chewers was positively affected by the experi- mentally estimated palatability. There was no support for H2 as neither leaf traits nor experi- mentally estimated palatability affected the mean body mass of leaf chewers. The mean body mass of rostrum chewers was positively related to palatability. Thus, leaf traits and experimentally estimated palatability influenced the abundance and mean body mass of chewing arthropods on the community level. However, the data were not consistent with the Jarman-Bell principle. Overall, our results suggest that the palatability of leaves is not among the dominant factors influencing abundance and mean body mass of the community of chewing arthropod herbivores. If other factors, such as the microclimate, predation or fur- ther (a-)biotic interactions are more important has to be analyzed in refined studies.

Abstract:

This study addresses transpiration in a tropical evergreen mountain forest in the Ecuadorian Andes from the leaf to the stand level, with emphasis on nocturnal plant-water relations. The stand level: Evapotranspiration (ET) measured over 12 months with the Eddy-Covariance (ECov) technique proved as the major share (79%) of water received from precipitation. Irre- spective of the humid climate, the vegetation transpired day and night. On average, 15.3% of the total daily ET were due to nocturnal transpiration. Short spells of drought increased daily ET, mainly by enhanced nighttime transpiration. Following leaf transpiration rather than air temperature and atmospheric water vapor deficit, ET showed its maximum already in the morning hours. The tree level: Due to the humid climate, the total water consumption of trees was generally low. Nevertheless, xylem sap flux measurements separated the investigated tree species into a group showing relatively high and another one with low sap flux rates. The leaf level: Transpiration rates of Tapirira guianensis, a member of the high- flux-rate group, were more than twice those of Ocotea aciphylla, a representative of the group showing low sap flux rates. Representatives of the Tapirira group operated at a rela- tively high leaf water potential but with a considerable diurnal amplitude, while the leaves of the Ocotea group showed low water potential and small diurnal fluctuations. Overall, the Tapirira group performed anisohydrically and the Ocotea group isohydrically. Grouping of the tree species by their water relations complied with the extents of the diurnal stem circum- ference fluctuations. Nighttime transpiration and hydrological type: In contrast to the isohy- drically performing trees of the Ocotea group, the anisohydric trees showed considerable water vapour pressure deficit (VPD)-dependent nocturnal transpiration. Therefore, we con- clude that nighttime ET at the forest level is mainly sourced by the tree species with aniso- hydric performance.

Abstract:

Biodiversity and ecosystem functions are highly threatened by global change. It has been proposed that geodiversity can be used as an easy-to-measure surrogate of biodiversity to guide conservation management. However, so far, there is mixed evidence to what extent geodiversity can predict biodiversity and ecosystem functions at the regional scale relevant for conservation planning. Here, we analyse how geodiversity computed as a compound index is suited to predict the diversity of four taxa and associated ecosystem functions in a tropical mountain hotspot of biodiversity and compare the results with the predictive power of environmental conditions and resources (climate, habitat, soil). We show that combinations of these environmental variables better explain species diversity and ecosystem functions than a geodiversity index and identified climate variables as more important predictors than habitat and soil variables, although the best predictors differ between taxa and functions. We conclude that a compound geodiversity index cannot be used as a single surrogate predictor for species diversity and ecosystem functions in tropical mountain rain forest ecosystems and is thus little suited to facilitate conservation management at the regional scale. Instead, both the selection and the combination of environmental variables are essential to guide conservation efforts to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem functions.

Abstract:

In the past two decades, the Amazon-exposed, tropical montane rain forests in south Ecuador experienced increasing deposition of reactive N mainly from Amazonian forest fires, episodic Ca and Mg inputs from Saharan dust, and a low but constant P deposition from unknown sources. To explore the response of this tropical, perhumid ecosystem to nutrient inputs, we established in 2007 a Nutrient Manipulation Experiment (NUMEX). Since 2008, we have applied 50 kg ha−1 year−1 of N as urea, 10 kg ha−1 year−1 of P as NaH2PO4·H2O, 50 kg ha−1 year−1 of N + 10 kg ha−1 year−1 of P and 10 kg ha−1 year−1 of Ca as CaCl2·H2O in a randomized block design at 2000 m a.s.l. in a natural forest of the south Ecuadorian Andes. Previous studies have shown that alkali and alkaline earth metals had beneficial effects on the functioning of N and P co-limited tropical forests occurring on acidic soils. Therefore, we determined the response of all major aqueous ecosystem fluxes of K, Ca, Mg and Na to nutrient amendments, to understand how increasing atmospheric deposition would affect their cycling in the future. Additions of N and P decreased K leaching from the organic layer and in the mineral soil, thus tightening K cycling. This suggests that increasing future N and P availability may result in K limitation in the long term. The leaching of Ca and Mg from the canopy increased in response to amendments of N and P and we observed an enhanced uptake of these nutrients also if Ca was amended alone. Although N was applied as urea, acidity of soil solutions and leaching of K, Ca, Mg and Na did not increase following separate N amendments. In spite of the acid soils and of its low cation-exchange competitivity, Na included in the P fertilizer was only partly leached from the organic layer. We suggest that it was probably required to cover an unmet Na demand of the soil fauna. Our results demonstrate the major role in the functioning of the tropical montane forests played by K, Ca and Mg as potential future growth-limiting elements and increasingly required nutrients in response to rising N and P availability, while they also support the importance of Na as a functional element in these ecosystems.

Abstract:

Tropical mountain ecosystems are threatened by climate and land-use changes. Their diversity and complexity make projec- tions how they respond to environmental changes challenging. A suitable way are trait-based approaches, by distinguishing between response traits that determine the resistance of species to environmental changes and efect traits that are relevant for species’ interactions, biotic processes, and ecosystem functions. The combination of those approaches with land surface models (LSM) linking the functional community composition to ecosystem functions provides new ways to project the response of ecosystems to environmental changes. With the interdisciplinary project RESPECT, we propose a research framework that uses a trait-based response-efect-framework (REF) to quantify relationships between abiotic conditions, the diversity of functional traits in communities, and associated biotic processes, informing a biodiversity-LSM. We apply the framework to a megadiverse tropical mountain forest. We use a plot design along an elevation and a land-use gradient to collect data on abiotic drivers, functional traits, and biotic processes. We integrate these data to build the biodiversity- LSM and illustrate how to test the model. REF results show that aboveground biomass production is not directly related to changing climatic conditions, but indirectly through associated changes in functional traits. Herbivory is directly related to changing abiotic conditions. The biodiversity-LSM informed by local functional trait and soil data improved the simulation of biomass production substantially. We conclude that local data, also derived from previous projects (platform Ecuador), are key elements of the research framework. We specify essential datasets to apply this framework to other mountain ecosystems.

Abstract:

Tropical Mountain Forest (TMF) provides important ecological functions like evapotranspiration (ET) that supplies moisture and energy to the atmosphere. ET observations are scarce and difficult to accomplish particularly in areas of high heterogeneity where TMF are. Remote sensing (RS) allows to quantify and to determine ET spatial variation at the landscape level. Detail imaginary improves high spatial variability retrieval. Thought the greater detail introduces cast shadows by trees which hamper image interpretation. The objective of this study is to characterize ET estimation for the TMF of the southern Ecuadorian Andes by combining meteorological data with high-resolution satellite images. Shadows from high resolution images were masked out by applying focal statistics. The analysis included two meteorological periods typical of the area; a wet period when rain prevails and a dry period when precipitation is more sporadic. The reference evapotranspiration (ET0) was calculated using the FAO-Penman Montheid method by applying data obtained from an automatic weather station. The enhanced vegetation index (EVI) was derived from 2 m resolution WorldView2 satellite images. Results showed a lower ET mean value during the wet period: 1.54 mm day−1 compared to 2.37 mm day−1. Two forest types, differentiated from its structural composition and topographical position (ravine and ridge), marked ET spatial variation. Ravine forest that has a more dense and closed canopy showed higher ET values for both meteorological conditions. A comparison between ET estimations and ET field measurements from a scintillometer device showed a good agreement (coefficient of correlation r = 0.89) that proves the validity of the method. This study demonstrates that the application of high spatial resolution improves ET estimation in TMF especially when shadows are removed. Also, emphasizes the importance of analysing spatial heterogeneity to properly assess ecosystem water flux terms.

Abstract:

Few studies have analysed the effect of silvicultural treatments on tree growth in tropical montane forests (TMF). These forests have strong topographic gradients, which influence growth rates and can potentially interact with silvicultural treatments. The present study investigated the relative effects of silvicultural treatments and topography on growth rates at the tree level in a TMF. For this, we combined two distinct data sources: (1) field data from a silvicultural experiment in the Andes of southern Ecuador where liberation thinnings, i.e. the removal of the strongest crown competitors, were applied to potential crop trees (PCT) in 2004; and (2) topographic variables obtained from a high-resolution digital terrain model created from an airborne LIDAR survey. We fitted all data in a single linear mixed-effect model. Based on monitoring data from 174 released and 200 reference PCTs of 8 timber species, we calculated periodic annual increment (PAI) in DBH 6 years after the silvicultural treatment as our outcome variable. As topographic predictors, we used elevation and a topographic position index. To control for the by-species growth variability we included random intercepts for species and random slopes for the effect of treatment on species in our model. PAI was significantly influenced by the topographic predictors. Over the elevational gradient, growth rates declined on average by 0.73 mm a−1 per 100 m increase in elevation. For the topographic position, PCTs in valleys had an average PAI of 2.02 mm a−1 compared to 1.04 mm a−1 on ridges. The effect of the silvicultural treatment across all species was only marginally significant, but its effect size was nevertheless within the range, but at the lower end of values reported for other tropical forest ecosystems (reference trees: 1.35 mm a−1; released trees: 1.60 mm a−1). Between species, baseline growth rates as well as the treatment effect varied considerably. Best linear unbiased predictions of species effects suggested that 5 species responded positively to the silvicultural treatment, whereas 3 species showed no treatment effect. Overall, tree growth varied substantially as indicated by the large residual variance that remained unaccounted for in the model. Our findings indicate that positive effects of silvicultural treatments in TMF are likely to exist, but that they are possibly obfuscated by strong topographical gradients and large between-tree growth variability. Overall, our results suggest that “broad-brush” management prescriptions are not suited for sustainable forest management of TMF. Instead, granular and spatially explicit prescriptions that take the strong impact of topography on diameter growth as well as species-specific responses to silvicultural treatments into account should be favoured.

Abstract:

Abstract Conversion of tropical forests is among the primary causes of global environmental change. The loss of their important environmental services has prompted calls to integrate ecosystem services (ES) in addition to socio-economic objectives in decision-making. To test the effect of accounting for both ES and socio-economic objectives in land-use decisions, we develop a new dynamic approach to model deforestation scenarios for tropical mountain forests. We integrate multi-objective optimization of land allocation with an innovative approach to consider uncertainty spaces for each objective. These uncertainty spaces account for potential variability among decision-makers, who may have different expectations about the future. When optimizing only socio-economic objectives, the model continues the past trend in deforestation (1975–2015) in the projected land-use allocation (2015–2070). Based on indicators for biomass production, carbon storage, climate and water regulation, and soil quality, we show that considering multiple ES in addition to the socio-economic objectives has heterogeneous effects on land-use allocation. It saves some natural forest if the natural forest share is below 38%, and can stop deforestation once the natural forest share drops below 10%. For landscapes with high shares of forest (38%–80% in our study), accounting for multiple ES under high uncertainty of their indicators may, however, accelerate deforestation. For such multifunctional landscapes, two main effects prevail: (a) accelerated expansion of diversified non-natural areas to elevate the levels of the indicators and (b) increased landscape diversification to maintain multiple ES, reducing the proportion of natural forest. Only when accounting for vascular plant species richness as an explicit objective in the optimization, deforestation was consistently reduced. Aiming for multifunctional landscapes may therefore conflict with the aim of reducing deforestation, which we can quantify here for the first time. Our findings are relevant for identifying types of landscapes where this conflict may arise and to better align respective policies.

Abstract:

Despite many eorts of the radar community, quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) from weather radar data remains a challenging topic. The high resolution of X-band radar imagery in space and time comes with an intricate correction process of reflectivity. The steep and high mountain topography of the Andes enhances its complexity. This study aims to optimize the rainfall derivation of the highest X-band radar in the world (4450 m a.s.l.) by using a random forest (RF) model and single Plan Position Indicator (PPI) scans. The performance of the RFmodel was evaluated in comparison with the traditional step-wise approach by using both, the Marshall-Palmer and a site-specific Z–R relationship. Since rain gauge networks are frequently unevenly distributed and hardly available at real time in mountain regions, bias adjustment was neglected. Results showed an improvement in the step-wise approach by using the site-specific (instead of the Marshall-Palmer) Z–R relationship. However, both models highly underestimate the rainfall rate (correlation coecient < 0.69; slope up to 12). Contrary, the RF model greatly outperformed the step-wise approach in all testing locations and on dierent rainfall events (correlation coecient up to 0.83; slope = 1.04). The results are promising and unveil a dierent approach to overcome the high attenuation issues inherent to X-band radars.

Abstract:

Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) climatology, the thermodynamic and dynamical variables, and teleconnections influencing MCSs development are assessed for the Paute basin (PB) in the Ecuadorian Andes from 2000 to 2009. The seasonality of MCSs occurrence shows a bimodal pattern, with higher occurrence during March-April (MA) and October-November (ON), analogous to the regional rainfall seasonality. The diurnal cycle of MCSs shows a clear nocturnal occurrence, especially during the MA and ON periods. Interestingly, despite the higher occurrence of MCSs during the rainy seasons, the monthly size relative frequency remains fairly constant throughout the year. On the east of the PB, the persistent high convective available potential and low convective inhibition values from midday to nighttime are likely related to the nocturnal development of the MCSs. A significant positive correlation between the MCSs occurrence to the west of the PB and the Trans-Niño index was found, suggesting that ENSO is an important source of interannual variability of MCSs frequency with increasing development of MCSs during warm ENSO phases. On the east of the PB, the variability of MCSs is positively correlated to the tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature anomalies south of the equator, due to the variability of the Atlantic subtropical anticyclone, showing main departures from this relation when anomalous conditions occur in the tropical Pacific due to ENSO.

Abstract:

Atmospheric carbon (CO2) exchange, evapotranspiration (ET) processes, and their interactions with climatic drivers across tropical alpine grasslands are poorly understood. This lack of understanding is particularly evident for the páramo, the highest vegetated frontier in the northern Andes, the main source of water for inter-Andean cities, and a large carbon storage area. Studies of CO2 and ET fluxes via the standard Eddy Covariance (EC) technique have never been applied to this region, limiting the understanding of diurnal / nocturnal exchanges and budget estimations. In this paper, we report the first EC analysis conducted on the Andean páramo (3765?m a.s.l.); this analysis measured CO2, ET, and micrometeorological variables over two years (2016–2018) to understand their interactions with climatic / biophysical controls. The páramo was found to be a source of CO2 and exhibited a net positive exchange (mean = +99?±?30 gC m?2 per year). The light-responses of net CO2 exchange and the primary productivity were correlated and model-parameterized. Evapotranspiration was 635?±?9?mm per year (51% of the annual rainfall total), and we obtained crop coefficients for the dominant vegetation (Tussock grass) based on reference-ET models FAO56 and ASCE-ERWI (0.90 and 0.78, respectively). We also compared our results to those from other high-altitude (alpine) and high-latitude grasslands (tundra). Finally, we demonstrate that our measurement period is representative of the páramo’s longer-term climate dynamics. Our investigation contributes to the body of knowledge on the land surface-atmosphere processes of the tropical Andes and supports decision-making about ecosystem services management and the preservation of this vulnerable biome.

Abstract:

In tropical agriculture, the vigorously growing Bracken fern causes severe problems by invading pastures and out-competing the common pasture grasses. Due to infestation by that weed, pastures are abandoned after a few years, and as a fatal consequence, the biodi- versity-rich tropical forest is progressively cleared for new grazing areas. Here we present a broad physiological comparison of the two plant species that are the main competitors on the pastures in the tropical Ecuadorian Andes, the planted forage grass Setaria sphacelata and the weed Bracken (Pteridium arachnoideum).With increasing elevation, the competitive power of Bracken increases as shown by satellite data of the study region. Using data obtained from field measurements, the annual biomass production of both plant species, as a measure of their competitive strength, was modeled over an elevational gradient from 1800 to 2800 m. The model shows that with increasing elevation, biomass production of the two species shifts in favor of Bracken which, above 1800 m, is capable of outgrowing the grass. In greenhouse experiments, the effects on plant growth of the presumed key vari- ables of the elevational gradient, temperature and UV radiation, were separately analyzed. Low temperature, as well as UV irradiation, inhibited carbon uptake of the C4-grass more than that of the C3-plant Bracken. The less temperature-sensitive photosynthesis of Bracken and its effective protection from UV radiation contribute to the success of the weed on the highland pastures. In field samples of Bracken but not of Setaria, the content of flavo- noids as UV-scavengers increased with the elevation. Combining modeling with measure- ments in greenhouse and field allowed to explain the invasive growth of a common weed in upland pastures. The performance of Setaria decreases with elevation due to suboptimal photosynthesis at lower temperatures and the inability to adapt its cellular UV screen.

Abstract:

A reliable estimation of Above Ground Biomass (AGB) in Tropical Mountain Forest (TMF) is still complicated, due to fast-changing climate and topographic conditions, which modifies the forest structure within fine scales. The variations in vertical and horizontal forest structure are hardly detectable by small field plots, especially in natural TMF due to the high tree diversity and the inaccessibility of remote areas. Therefore, the present approach used remotely sensed data from a Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) sensor in combination with field measurements to estimate AGB accurately for a catchment in the Andes of south-eastern Ecuador. From the LiDAR data, information about horizontal and vertical structure of the TMF could be derived and the vegetation at tree level classified, differentiated between the prevailing forest types (ravine forest, ridge forest and Elfin Forest). Furthermore, topographical variables (Topographic Position Index, TPI; Morphometric Protection Index, MPI) were calculated by means of the high-resolution LiDAR data to analyse the AGB distribution within the catchment. The field measurements included different tree parameters of the species present in the plots, which were used to determine the local mean Wood Density (WD) as well as the specific height-diameter relationship to calculate AGB, applying regional scale modelling at tree level. The results confirmed that field plot measurements alone cannot capture completely the forest structure in TMF but in combination with high resolution LiDAR data, applying a classification at tree level, the AGB amount (Mg ha??1) and its distribution in the entire catchment could be estimated adequately (model accuracy at tree level: R2 > 0.91). It was found that the AGB distribution is strongly related to ridges and depressions (TPI) and to the protection of the site (MPI), because high AGB was also detected at higher elevations (up to 196.6 Mg ha??1, above 2700 m), if the site is situated in depressions (ravine forest) and protected by the surrounding terrain. In general, highest AGB is stored in the protected ravine TMF parts, also at higher elevations, which could only be detected by means of the remote sensed data in high resolution, because most of these areas are inaccessible. Other vegetation units, present in the study catchment (pasture and subpáramo) do not contain large AGB stocks, which underlines the importance of intact natural forest stands.

Abstract:

In 201 3, the “Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Monitoring and Research in South Ecuador” (www.TropicalMountainForest.org) was launched as a knowledge transfer program in the biodiversity hotspot of the southern Ecuadorian Andes, jointly funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) and Ecuadorian non-university partners. One of the overall aims of the transdisciplinary program is to design science-directed recommendations for an ecologically sustainable, economically profitable and socially compatible use of the mainly rural land. The second major goal of the program is the development of functional indicators that are crucial for the monitoring of impacts of environmental change on the ecosystem and its functions. They encompass abiotic, abiotic-biotic and biotic-biotic interrelations, and are sensitive - though to different extent - to subtle changes in the environment. Therefore, it is not only the interaction per se, which has to be examined. In addition to that the quantification of the response to certain environmental stressors is needed. Representing the fundament of ecosystem functioning, biodiversity as such or certain functional taxa can be monitored for an assessment of the ecosystem’s state. Important further criteria for the selection of an indicator are general applicability, easiness of handling and stability against pitfalls. This book “Landscape Restoration, Sustainable Use and Cross-scale Monitoring of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions: A Science-directed Approach for South Ecuador” presents in its first part a compilation of sustainable land use concepts that have been proven for application in the Provinces Loja and Zamora Chinchipe and beyond, given comparable environmental conditions. The second part describes functional indicators as well as their development, monitoring and application. Both parts start with introductory chapters on the major aims of the respective transdisciplinary program, followed by contributions showing how land use concepts can be used to achieve sustainable management and ecosystem services, as well as how functional indicators can be used to assess and monitor the stability of biodiversity and ecosystem functions. It should be stressed that this book has not the aim to present only a scientific summary of the developed systems. Instead, it targets on stakeholders as our non-university partners and beyond which are in charge of environmental planning and ecosystem function surveillance in Ecuador. In the manner of a technical handbook, it gives a comprehensible introduction to the land use option or the indicator, followed by hints how to apply, implement and assess the developed systems. The book is and was complementing our three pillars of capacity building which also includes stakeholder workshops on the developed land use options and indicators, and demonstration plots in the field. With this book the authors highly acknowledge the generous funding of the research by the German Science Foundation (DFG) and the logistic, administrative and practical support by the foundation Naturaleza y Cultura Internacional (Loja and Del Mar). Such research requires also fruitful collaboration with local academic institutions, the Universidad Tecnica Particular de Loja, the Universidad Nacional de Loja, the Universidad de Cuenca, the Universidad de Azuay, and the local weather service INAMHI. These partnerships were a great experience in capacity building on both sides, as evidenced by a number of academic degrees obtained and by numerous joint publications. The authors are also grateful for the support of our nonuniversity research partners beyond NCI, namely ETAPA EP (Empresa Pública Municipal de Telecomunicaciones, Agua potable, lcantarillado y Saneamiento de Cuenca- Ecuador), the Gobierno Municipal de Zamora and the regional water fund FORAGUA (Fondo Regional del Agua). Further, sincere thanks are owed to the Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment (MAE) for permission to conduct research in South Ecuador. The Editors

Abstract:

This paper focuses on the analysis of precipitation patterns, using a Local Area Weather Radar to collect information about the precipitation distribution in an Andean region of southern Ecuador (cities of Loja, Zamora and Catamayo). 54 representative events were selected to develop daily precipitation maps and to obtain their relevant characteristics, which were related to the topography and the season. The results showed that a strong correlation between the areas covered by precipitation (RA coefficient) and the season exists. In general, humid air masses come from the east (Amazon Basin), but during the main rainy season (December to April), humidity also frequently enters the study region from the west (Pacific Ocean). The rainy season is characterized by convective precipitation, associated with higher evaporation rates during austral summer. The relatively dry season is formed between May and November, but considerable precipitation amounts are registered, too, due to advective moisture transport from the Amazon Basin, a result of the predominant tropical easterlies carrying the humidity up the eastern escarpment of the Andes, generally following the natural course of the drainage systems.

Abstract:

Ecosystem water regulation couples energy and water balance, depends on the integrity of the ecosystem, and responds to changes in climate. Changes in tree-water relationships in the biodiversity hotspot of the tropical Andes in southern Ecuador might be potentially observed at the level of individual trees, thus providing an efficient ecosystem monitoring method with applications in forest management and conservation at the tree and landscape levels. In this study, we combine area-average measurements from a laser scintillometer above the forest with optical satellite data at high spatial resolution to obtain area-wide evapotranspiration data. The processing of field data includes the calculation of energy storage in forest biomass and the partitioning of evapotranspiration into transpiration and evaporation. Satellite-based estimates are calibrated by using tower flux measurements and meteorological data within periods of humid and less-humid atmosphere. The annual evapotranspiration was 1316 mm, of which 1086 mm per year corresponds to the forest transpiration at the study site. Average values of 4.7 and 4.1 mm d-1 per tree crown are observed under humid and less-humid atmospheric conditions, respectively, when applying high-resolution area-wide evapotranspiration in individual crown analysis. Approximately 24% of the observed crowns show a positive monthly change in ET, and 51% of the crowns show a significant change in the daily ET, which can be considered sensitive individuals concerning water relationships. The limitations in the area-wide evapotranspiration at the crown level can be explained by considering the spectral responses of the crown individuals. The presented method can be robustly deployed in the ecological monitoring of mountain forests.

Abstract:

Ecosystem water regulation couples energy and water balance, depends on the integrity of the ecosystem, and responds to changes in climate. Changes in tree-water relationships in the biodiversity hotspot of the tropical Andes in southern Ecuador might be potentially observed at the level of individual trees, thus providing an ef?- cient ecosystem monitoring method with applications in forest management and conservation at the tree and landscape levels. In this study,we combine area-averagemeasurements froma laser scintillometer above the for- est with optical satellite data at high spatial resolution to obtain area-wide evapotranspiration data. The process- ing of ?eld data includes the calculation of energy storage in forest biomass and the partitioning of evapotranspiration into transpiration and evaporation. Satellite-based estimates are calibrated by using tower ?ux measurements and meteorological data within periods of humid and less-humid atmosphere. The annual evapotranspiration was 1316 mm, of which 1086 mm per year corresponds to the forest transpiration at the study site. Average values of 4.7 and 4.1 mm d?1 per tree crown are observed under humid and less-humid at- mospheric conditions, respectively, when applying high-resolution area-wide evapotranspiration in individual crown analysis. Approximately 24% of the observed crowns show a positive monthly change in ET, and 51% of the crowns show a signi?cant change in the daily ET, which can be considered sensitive individuals concerning water relationships. The limitations in the area-wide evapotranspiration at the crown level can be explained by considering the spectral responses of the crown individuals. The presented method can be robustly deployed in the ecological monitoring of mountain forests.