Environmental changes in biodiversity hotspot ecosystems of
South Ecuador: RESPonse and feedback effECTs (FOR2730)

Abstract:

The diversity of geometrid moths (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) was investigated in two tropical montane cloud forests in southern Ecuador and in central Costa Rica. The study covered an elevational range from c. 1000 to 2700 m.a.s.l. in both locations. Data were analyzed for eight sites, representing four elevations in each of the two study areas. A total of 770 species (4569 specimens) were sampled in Ecuador vs. 503 in Costa Rica (7303 specimens). Sampling was incomplete and it is expected that more species will be found in both areas. Moth diversity was extremely high in Ecuador and almost invariably higher than at comparable elevations in Costa Rica. Values of Fisher?s a index ranged between 70 and 131 in Ecuador, and between 31 and 83 in Costa Rica. An analysis of rarefied species numbers led to very similar results. At a level of 390 rarefied specimens, the range was 131?179 species at the Ecuadorian sites, vs. 77?140 at the Costa Rican sites. Only 64 (5.3%) out of the total of 1209 species were common to both areas. The results of this study underline the fact that the tropical Andean mountains are one of the ?hot spots? of local diversity of geometrid moths, and that the threatened Andean cloud forests should be given the highest priority in conservation policy. Similarly, countries like Costa Rica, which are already actively engaged in nature conservation, may find additional motivation in the present results to continue their efforts.

Abstract:

The formation of nocturnal convective clouds at the eastern Andes of south Ecuador and the adjacent Peruvian Amazon basin was investigated in a numerical model study. Their formation is expected to be an interactive procedure of nocturnal downslope flows in the Andean terrain, which forms a concave drainage system in the target area. Satellite imagery were used for both the identification of a sample case with a nocturnal cold cloud appearance and for the verification of the simulated results. The cloud patterns were distinguished on the basis of IR temperatures. A comparison of the data demonstrated the occurrence of a cold cloud shield in the target area, although the modeled cluster is significantly smaller. Further analysis of the development of the convective cells confirmed the assumed underlying processes. A strong current in the lower atmosphere, presumably a drainage flow, was recognizable in association with strong moisture convergence using a cross section through the cluster. Their presence was confirmed on the basis of their characteristic features and the surface energy fluxes as the driving force for thermally induced downslope flows.

Abstract:

As part of an interdisciplinary research programme, the spatial and temporal variability of precipitation in southern Ecuador has been investigated since January 2002. The study site is located at the northern margin of the Podocarpus National Park in the vicinity of Loja, about 500 km south of Quito, at altitudes ranging from 1800 to 3200 m.a.s.l. Due to its low density, the conventional rainfall station network fails to register the highly variable spatial distribution of rain, whereas contributions by fog are not accounted at all. Hence, for the first time in a tropical montane forest setting, a weather radar was used, covering a radius of 60 km and reaching from the Amazon Basin to the coastal plains of the region. Furthermore, a network of sampling stations supplies data about the altitudinal gradient of fog and rainwater inputs. The precipitation distribution in the study area proves to be far more variable than previously thought and is strongly coupled to the orographic characteristics and the special topographical setting of the landscape. Maxima in precipitation occur especially in the eastern parts of the radar range on slopes exposed to advected moisture from the Amazon Basin, whereas the highest crests of the Andes receive less precipitation. The study area has two cloud condensation levels, occurring at 1500?2000 and 2500?3500 m.a.s.l., respectively. At 1800?2000 m.a.s.l., fog is estimated to contribute an additional input of 5% of conventionally measured rainfall, increasing to about 35% at the highest measurement station (3200 m.a.s.l.). In contrast to some other tropical mountains, there seems to be no maximum zone of water input, although the gradient remains positive up to the highest altitudes. The unusual precipitation distribution is thought to reflect the contrasting climatological influences operating in the study area.

Abstract:

As part of an interdisciplinary research program, the spatial and temporal variability of precipitation and associated nutrient inputs in southern Ecuador have been investigated since January 2002. The study site is located at the northern margin of the Podocarpus National Park in the vicinity of Loja, about 500 km south of Quito, at altitudes ranging from 1800 to 3180 m.a.s.l. Due to its low density, the conventional rainfall station network fails to register the highly variable distribution of rain whereas fog is not accounted for at all. Hence, a new measurement infrastructure had to be installed. For the first time in a tropical montane forest setting, a Weather Radar was used, covering a radius of 60 km and reaching from the Amazon Basin to the coastal plains of the region. Furthermore, a dense network of sampling stations provided data about the altitudinal gradient of fog water inputs and the chemical properties of the different precipitation types. This combined approach provided important information on the formative processes of rain events on the eastern escarpment of the Andes. Rainfall distribution proved far more variable than previously known and strongly coupled to the orographic characteristics of the landscape. Maxima occurred especially on the exposed mountain slopes in the eastern parts of the Radar range, whereas the highest crests of the Andes received less precipitation. The study area has two cloud condensation levels, occurring at 1500?2000 m and 2500?3500 m.a.s.l., respectively. Fog was estimated to provide an additional 5?35% of water to conventionally measured rainfall. As with rainfall, fog capture exhibited a marked altitudinal gradient. Precipitation samples were analyzed for their main chemical properties to calculate spatial gradients as well as temporal trends of nutrient inputs. Although average matter fluxes were fairly low, episodic events contributed relevant amounts to the overall ecosystem nutrient budget.

Abstract:

The Andes of Ecuador show an extreme heterogeneity of spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation. The existing operational network of the national weather service is not capable of reproducing these complex patterns. By using a cost-efficient rain radar and a network of high-resolution rain gauges, the real complexity of the rainfall distribution and the meteorological processes of rainfall formation can be assessed. A blendingmethod encompassing geostatistical tools allows to derive a comprehensive rainfall climatology for the study area. Precipitation is predominantly of the advective type, associated with humid air masses from the Amazon basin transported by the tropical easterlies. The typical form is light to heavy drizzle with long duration but lower rain rates. However, in contrast to former knowledge there is no single mechanism of rain formation for any given place. Several processes interact like small and large-scale convective cloud systems, local and regional valley/mountain breeze systems and terrain-lines of preferred moisture transport interact on various time scale. This leads to complex patterns of rainfall in space and time. Several types of characteristic weather situations are revealed by the study. They are characterized by specific combinations of local and regional atmospheric processes and interactions with the topographical configuration. They are modified by mesoscale and continental circulation patterns as the annual shift of pressure cells, the east Andean low-level Jet and katabatic flows.

Abstract:

The optical properties (reflectance and transmittance) of selected leaves from a tropical mountain rain-forest in southern Ecuador are determined to parametrize optical traits of plant functional types (PFT)of a state of the art land model (Community Land Model, CLM). 46 spatially dominating species are selected from 4 different forest types, the subpáramo and a succession stage of pasture areas representing ecologically predefined functional types within the study area. Measurements are conducted under a standardized experimental setup with a field spectrometer covering the radiation between 305 and 1305 nm. The results of the optical properties of all species are checked for similarity by cluster analysis and are compared to the composition of species of the predfined PFTs. Furthermore the results are compared to other studies, the default values for the globally defined PFT of tropical evergreen trees in the CLM and another forest growth model operated in the same study area. The results show that the clusters aggregated by the reflectance, transmittance or combined properties do not represent the predefined PFTs. The values of the other studies suggest a reassessment of the experimental setup for the transmittance measurements. Nevertheless, new reflectance values for the regionalized PFTs can be determined. The optical values differ from the CLM-PFT of tropical evergreen trees, and new values for the reflectance are recommended.

Abstract:

Cloud forests are one of the most species rich ecosystems in the world, but also one of the most endangered. Despite their importance they are deforested at an overwhelming rate all over the world. The scarce knowledge about these fragile systems definately is a hindrance for effective conservation management. This work therefore aims at improving the knowledge of tropical cloud forest streams and of the effects of land-use change on stream water quality.

Abstract:

Tropical montane forests are frequently located on steep slopes with pronounced differences in topographic exposure, related microclimatic conditions and hence in composition and structure of the vegetation over small distances. The objective of this work was to test the hypothesis that topographic position significantly influences soil fertility and water flow in these forests. Soil properties were determined at various topographic positions and water samples of selected ecosystem fluxes analyzed over a 1-year period for oxygen isotopes in three small, steep watersheds under lower montane forest in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes in southern Ecuador. The soils are subject to lateral material movement (landsliding and solifluction). This, together with the pronounced variation in climatic conditions and vegetation over small distances, resulted in high heterogeneity of soil properties. The pH of the A-horizon ranged between 3.7 and 6.4; concentrations of base metals (calcium, magnesium), sulfur and phosphorus, and trace metals (manganese, zinc) showed enormous spatial variation (coefficient of variation: 358?680% over a surface area of <30 ha). The steepness of the study area and the large contrast in hydraulic conductivities of the organic layer and the mineral soil resulted in a hillslope flow regime dominated by fast lateral flow. During baseflow conditions, d18O values were similar to that of the subsoil solution, but rapidly became similar to values in the top-soil solution during rain storms. The chemical composition of stormflows resembled that of the litter leachate. Stormflow had lower pH and higher organic carbon and metal concentrations than did baseflow. It is concluded that topographic position and lateral transport of water and matter (as a consequence of the pronounced inclination) are important controls of the water and nutrient cycles of the study forest.

Abstract:

The evaporative loss of intercepted water from the canopy constitutes an important element of the water budget of forests. Starting April 1998, incident precipitation (P), throughfall (TF), and stemflow (SF) were measured in five transects laid out in three small watersheds (~10 ha each) with lower montane rain forest at 1900?2200 m.a.s.l. in South Ecuador. Interception loss (I) was also modeled using the analytical model of Gash (1979). The storage capacity of the leaves and of the trunks and branches, as well as the direct throughfall, and stemflow fractions were determined using conventional regression approaches. In addition, apparent total evaporation (ET) was determined from the water budget for the three watersheds. Mean annual P in the first 4 years ranged between 2363 and 2592 mm among the three watersheds. Average I derived from weekly measurements of P, TF, and SF ranged between 2.0 and 3.5 mm/day (i.e. 32?50% of P). Modeled average I was similar to measured values at 2.1?3.4 mm/day (32?49% of P). We found that I constituted an important part of the average estimated watershed ET of 3.5?4.3 mm/day. The high evaporative losses are attributed to a combination of low rainfall intensities, the usual absence of fog, high canopy density, abundant epiphytes, and advected energy from lower elevations.

Abstract:

We analyzed the suitability of a combined sampling approach ? consisting of visual search and branch-beating ? for quantifying tropical caterpillar communities. Surveys were conducted in the Ecuadorian montane forest zone, with two shrub species from the genus Piper serving as focal targets. We sampled 160 shrubs in the course of four experiments following a standardized sampling protocol. Subsequently each shrub was completely defoliated accompanied by an intensive leaf-by-leaf search, in an effort to extract as close to 100% of all present caterpillars as possible. We analyzed the resulting dataset with regard to completeness, taxonomical bias, and influences of daytime, complexity of shrub structure, or experience of the researcher. The standardized sampling protocol extracted between 50.6% and 71.6% of the caterpillars present on a shrub. A minor taxonomic bias of the sampling protocol was observed, but appears to be of a simple and predictable nature, and is therefore easy to account for. We did not find any significant influences of daytime. Structure and size of shrubs had a strong influence on sampling results with small and simply structured shrubs being sampled most completely, large and complex shrubs most incompletely in our dataset. Researcher experience did not appear to have an influence on the sampling efficiency or taxonomic composition of samples obtained when we compared caterpillars obtained by standardized sampling with those collected by exhaustive leaf-by-leaf search. Comparison of caterpillar sizes revealed however, that inexperienced field assistants tended to overlook large fractions of the smallest caterpillars entirely. We conclude that our standardized combined sampling approach is fairly suitable for studies concerning caterpillar communities, especially when resampling of the same shrub individuals is desired.

Abstract:

Knowledge of the fate of deposited N in the possibly N-limited, highly biodiverse north Andean forests is important because of the possible effects of N inputs on plant performance and species composition. We analyzed concentrations and fluxes of NO3?N, NH4?N and dissolved organic N (DON) in rainfall, throughfall, litter leachate, mineral soil solutions (0.15?0.30 m depths) and stream water in a montane forest in Ecuador during four consecutive quarters and used the natural 15N abundance in NO3 during the passage of rain water through the ecosystem and bulk d15N values in soil to detect N transformations. Depletion of 15N in NO3 and increased NO3 fluxes during the passage through the canopy and the organic layer indicated nitrification in these compartments. During leaching from the organic layer to mineral soil and stream, NO3 concentrations progressively decreased and were enriched in 15N but did not reach the d15N values of solid phase organic matter (d15N = 5.6?6.7%). This suggested a combination of nitrification and denitrification in mineral soil. In the wettest quarter, the d15N value of NO3 in litter leachate was smaller (d15N = -1.58%) than in the other quarters (d15N = -9.38 ± SE 0.46%) probably because of reduced mineralization and associated fractionation against 15N. Nitrogen isotope fractionation of NO3 between litter leachate and stream water was smaller in the wettest period than in the other periods probably because of a higher rate of denitrification and continuous dilution by isotopically lighter NO3-N from throughfall and nitrification in the organic layer during the wettest period. The stable N isotope composition of NO3 gave valuable indications of N transformations during the passage of water through the forest ecosystem from rainfall to the stream.

Abstract:

Bracken (Pteridium spec.) is one of the most wide-spread weeds, especially where fire has been used for forest clearing or maintenance of agricultural areas, in particular of pastures. Taxonomically, it is considered an aggregate that separates into a northern hemispherical and a southern, tropical complex. The taxonomic ranks of the members of these complexes is still a matter of debate. Different from the extensively studied northern bracken, the knowledge of ecology and control measures of the tropical species is still fragmentary. A research team funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) is working in an ecosystem study in a narrow valley of the eastern range of the South Ecuadorian Andes. Part of this ecosystem are pastures, replacing the natural rain forest. These pastures are in part heavily infested by bracken and many of them have been already abandoned for this reason. Several groups of the research team work on various aspects of the bracken invasion, e.g. on ecophysiology of bracken, soils and microclimate of the study area, mycorrhiza, and on insect interactions with bracken. The main aims of my thesis were (1) identification and population structure of bracken, (2) ecology of tropical bracken with particular emphasis on its survival of bushfires, and (3) development of an effective bracken control strategy and subsequent re-pasturisation of abandoned areas. The bracken vegetation of the study area consists of mixed stands of Pteridium arachnoideum (KAULF.) MAXON and P. caudatum (L.) MAXON with a proportion of 3:2, and of a hybrid (ca. 2%). Identification was by leaf morphology, allozyme analysis, comparison of particular chloroplastic DNA sequences, and analysis of four genomic and one plastidic microsatellites. Dominance of P. arachnoideum was explained by the fact that P. caudatum, as a lowland species, reaches its upper altitudinal limit in the research area. Analysis of heterozygosity indicated a higher genetic stability of the diploid P. arachnoideum population as compared to the allotetraploid P. caudatum population. Spatial extension of the individual clones is apparently much smaller than reported for members of the northern bracken, indicating higher significance of sexual reproduction for the tropical fern in comparison to vegetative propagation by rhizome fragmentation. Four weeks after burning the natural rain forest, vigorously sprouting bracken sporophytes were observed. These developed from gametophytes, which germinated from the wind dispersed spores. Fast growth of the young sporophytes established the fern in the areas. After planting pasture grass, bracken was supported by repeated burning of the areas. In the long run, the grass was outcompeted by the fern possibly due to weakening of its vitality by burning and grazing, and the areas have been abandoned. The density of bracken fronds in a settled bracken area of our research site remained constant over years with only small deviations caused by particular weather situations. Since this balance holds also for patchy fern canopies, it is assumed that this is due to nutrient shortage of the soil. Most probably, a new leaf can only develop from the nutrients remobilized from a senescing old leaf. Two to three months after a fire, an explosive emergence of new leaves was observed at rates, which substantially exceeded those under undisturbed growth. The newly formed leaves showed an extended life-span, which was attributed to a better nutrient supply from the ash. Subsequent self-thinning reduced the density of the leaves to a stable level within two years. In a laboratory experiment, the effects of heat pulse by a simulated bushfire on the bracken rhizomes were investigated. Separated long and short shoots were heated for a short time either in a water bath or embedded in soil. Subsequent to this heat pulse, they were cultivated in original soil. Short shoots showed a significantly higher heat resistance (up to 80°C) than long shoots (up to 60°C). In addition, the short shoots showed elongation growth and an enhanced frond production, whereas long shoots were not stimulated by the heat pulse. In a bracken control experiment, thirteen control measures (cutting of the fronds, several herbicides, covering with plastic foil and combinations thereof) were applied over a time-period of 23 months. Each treatment was repeated six times and the effects were recorded monthly. Quarterly cutting of the leaves as well as treatment with a customary herbicide mixture (picloram and metsulforon methyl) were the most effective treatments resulting in a reduction of the standing biomass by 65%. Monthly records of the resprouting bracken was necessary to work out the minimum number of treatments required for a clear control effect. For the five most efficient treatments among two to four applications were necessary. However, complete eradication of bracken was not possible. For re-pasturisation, the common pasture grass Setaria sphacelata was planted on the treated areas within a long-term experiment. After nearly two years of observation, the system had stabilized with a cover of S. sphacelata of 75% and of bracken of below 40%. This result demonstrated that the competitive strength of S. sphacelata was sufficient to control bracken once weakened by control treatments. The long-term experiment and, in addition, an experiment in which a gradually bracken-infested area is subjected to controlled burning, are continued.

Abstract:

The ecology of tropical bracken, which occurs in tropical regions, is not well known. We studied its response to weather variations and burning in the south Ecuadorian Andes, where this weed had already overgrown 40% of the pastureland. In field observations, a constant 1:1 ratio of emerging and dying leaves suggested limitation of frond density by nutrient shortage. Short-term deviations from that ratio could be related to weather variations. Spells of dry weather temporarily increased mortality but stimulated emergence of new fronds. Lifespan of the fronds produced immediately after a fire was longer than of those produced during unaffected bracken growth. A burst of frond development during the initial 2 to 3 mo was observed after a fire followed by self-thinning to a stable level. To analyze the effect of fire on bracken, rhizomes were treated with heat pulses. Rhizomes were heat tolerant up to 70 C, and frond production from short shoots was enhanced by elevated temperature. Burning apparently releases apical dominance of developed fronds, as does cutting, and stimulates bud break. The local practice of pasture maintenance in Ecuador of repeated burning favors growth of the fern.

Abstract:

Anthropogene Eingriffe, insbesondere Abholzung, bedrohen die noch bestehenden Bergregenwälder. Eine mögliche Alternative zur Abholzung wäre nachhaltige Naturwaldbewirtschaftung. Daneben gefährden zunehmende Nährstoffeinträge dieses sensible Ökosystem, indem sie Limitierungen des Pflanzenwachstums durch N, oftmals auch P und weitere Elemente aufheben. In tropischen Regenwäldern befindet sich in der organischen Auflage ein Großteil der Nährstoffe, die durch Mineralisation freigesetzt werden. Die Mineralisation wird durch verschiedene Faktoren beeinflusst, unter anderem Bodentemperaturen und Nährstoffeinträge. Zieler dieser Arbeit sind, das Wissen über Steuergrößen von C- und Nährstoffkreisläufen zu erweitern und die Auswirkungen nachhaltiger Naturwaldbewirtschaftung und erhöhter Nährstoffeinträge auf diese Kreisläufe in einem tropischen Bergregenwald auf paläozoischem Schiefer und Meta-Sandstein Südecuador festzustellen. Die in dieser Arbeit überprüften Hypothesen waren, dass der Umsatz der organischen Substanz durch Auflichtung undZugabe limitierender Nährelementen erhöht und somit die Umsatzzeiten verkürzt werden. Die untersuchten Flächen liegen auf 1.900?2.150m ü. NN. Juni 2004 wurden im Rahmen eines Naturwald-Managementexperimentes in einem Kleineinzugsgebiet auf einer Gesamtfläche von 4 ha 32 Bäume pro ha entnommen. In einem Düngeexperiment (numex) wurden Flächen zwei mal pro Jahr entweder mit 50 kg ha-1, kg ha-1 P, 50 kg ha-1 N + 10 kg ha-1 P oder 10 kg ha-1 Ca gedüngt. Die Probenahme der organischen Auflage erfolgte von April bis Juni 2009. Streufall und Freilandniederschläge wurden von Juni 2008 bis Mai 2009 analysiert. Es wurden Elementgehalte und -flüsse im bzw. mit dem Streufall, Nährstoffnutzungseffizienzen (NUE) sowie Elementgehalte, -vorräte und Umsatzzeiten in der organischen Auflage bestimmt. Die in der Nähe des Grates auf sauren Böden gelegenen NUMEX-Flächen weisen niedrigere mittlere Elementgehalte im Streufall (K: 2,8, Mg: 1,9, N: 9,8, P: 0,35 g kg-1), Elementflüsse mit dem Streufall (Ca: 14, Mg: 8,2, N: 41, P: 1,5, S: 2,1 kg ha-1), höhere NUE (Ca: 307, K: 367, Mg: 529, N: 104, P: 2.882), niedrigere mittlere Elementgehalte (Ca: 0,23,K: 0,99, Mg: 0,31, N: 17, P: 0,45 g kg-1) und ?Vorräte (Ca: 50, K: 223, Mg: 68, P: 75 kg ha-1 a-1), höhere N-Vorräte (3.832 kg ha-1 a-1) und längere Umsatzzeiten in der organischen Auflage (KOL: Organische Substanz: 62, K: 20, Mg: 8,6 N: 98, P: 72 a) im Vergleich zu den am Hang gelegenen durchforsteten Flächen auf (Elementgehalte im Streufall: K: 6,7, Mg: 3,2, N: 16, P: 0,55 g kg-1; Elementflüsse mit dem Streufall: Ca: 149, Mg: 40, N: 205, P: 6,9, S: 5,7 kg ha-1 a-1; NUE: Ca: 90, K: 150, Mg: 324, N: 62, P: 1.822; Elementgehalte in der organischen Auflage: Ca: 7,6, K: 3,1, Mg: 1,6, N: 21,P: 1,1 g kg-1; Vorräte in der organischen Auflage: Ca: 1.229, K: 432, Mg: 243, N: 2.771, P: 137 kg ha-1a-1; Umsatzzeiten in der organischen Auflage: Organische Substanz: 11, K: 4,9, Mg: 5,0, N: 13, P: 17 a). Viereinhalb Jahre nach der Durchforstung sind keine Unterschiede in den Gehalten im Streufall zwischen den geschlagenen Lücken und dem ungestörten Bestand festzustellen. Die Düngezugaben von N, P, N+P oder Ca bewirkten eine Steigerung der entsprechenden Elementgehalte im Streufall und in der organischen Auflage sowie der Elementvorräte in der organischen Auflage. Die NUE der entsprechend zugeführten Elemente war herabgesetzt. Zudem waren die mittleren Umsatzzeiten von N in den mit N (91 a) und N+P (79 a) gedüngten Flächen, die von P in den mit N+P (54 a) gedüngten Flächen und von Ca in den mit Ca (3,5 a) gedüngten Flächen gegenüber den Kontrollflächen (N: 107, P: 73, Ca: 4,1 a) verkürzt. In den mit N und N+P gedüngten Flächen stiegen die Streufallmassen im Vergleich zu den Kontrollflächen um mehr als 800 kg ha-1a-1an.

Abstract:

Despite the importance of tropical montane cloud forest streams, studies investigating aquatic communities in these regions are rare and knowledge on the driving factors of community structure is missing. The objectives of this study therefore were to understand how land-use infl uences habitat structure and macroinvertebrate communities in cloud forest streams of southern Ecuador. We evaluated these relationships in headwater streams with variable land cover, using multivariate statistics to identify relationships between key habitat variables and assemblage structure, and to resolve differences in composition among sites. Results show that shading intensity, substrate type and pH were the environmental parameters most closely related to variation in community composition observed among sites. In addition, macroinvertebrate density and partly diversity was lower in forested sites, possibly because the pH in forested streams lowered to almost 5 during spates. Standard bioindicator metrics were unable to detect the changes in assemblage structure between disturbed and forested streams. In general, our results indicate that tropical montane headwater streams are complex and heterogeneous ecosystems with low invertebrate densities. We also found that some amount of disturbance, i.e. patchy deforestation, can lead at least initially to an increase in macroinvertebrate taxa richness of these streams.

Abstract:

La tesis analiza la problemática de legalización de tierras de la comunidad de El Tibio (parroquia Imbana, cantón Zamora), que se encuentra dentro del Bosque Protector Corazón de Oro. Parte del aspecto del desconocimiento de la declaratoria de los habitantes, que se asientan en la zona mucho antes de la declaratoria del bosque protector. Con datos espaciales, históricos, se analiza cómo los aspectos políticos no consideran la realidad de los pobladores de zonas rurales, que en la actualidad se considera de alta importancia ambiental.

Abstract:

Late Holocene vegetation, fire, climate and upper forest line dynamics were studied based on detailed pollen and charcoal analyses. Two sediment cores, from the Rabadilla de Vaca mire (RVM) and the Valle Pequen˜o bog (VP), with an age of about 2100 and 1630 cal yrs B.P., respectively, were taken at the modern upper forest line in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Podocarpus National Park) in southeastern Ecuador. The two pollen records reflect relatively stable vegetation with slight changes in floral composition during the recorded period. Changes of the proportion between subpa´ramo and pa´ramo vegetation are related to lower and higher frequency of fires. The RVM records show that the upper forest line moved to a higher elevation between 1630 and 880 cal yrs B.P., stabilising after 310 cal yrs B.P. Human impact is suggested by a high fire frequency, mainly between 1800–1600 and 880– 310 cal yrs B.P. The VP records indicate no marked changes in the upper forest line. The charcoal records suggest an increased human impact from 230 cal yrs B.P. to the present. The results indicate that high fire frequency is an important factor in reducing the expansion of subpa´ramo vegetation and upper montane rainforest and in favouring the distribution of grass pa´ramo. Since there is a clear correlation between fire and vegetation dynamics, it is difficult to detect how far climate change also played a significant role in upper forest line changes during the late Holocene.

Abstract:

The southeastern Ecuadorian Andes belong to the tropical eastern Andes and represent one of the global centers of vascular plant diversity. They are one of the most biodiverse regions on earth. Despite the immense value and importance of the ecosystems existing here, we must confront the endangerment of these largely unexplored habitats. Additionally, palaeoenvironmental studies are rarely implemented, even though past processes play a major role in the development of ecosystems and biodiversity. In the present study, we carry out an investigation of late Quaternary vegetation, climate and fire dynamics in order to gain a deeper understanding of past environmental changes in the Podocarpus National Park (PNP) region in the southeastern Andes of Ecuador. The results contribute essential background information for conservation strategies in the PNP area and provide a further step towards a better assessment of the ecosystem’s responses to future global change. Palynological and multi-proxy analyses of three sediment records are used to reconstruct past vegetation dynamics and to reveal the influencing factors. The combination of several available pollen records and the establishment of a rule of thumb for vertical shifts of the upper forest line (UFL) facilitated the first regional environmental reconstruction and visualization for an area of the PNP since the last glacial maximum (LGM). The implementation of multivariate data analysis of modern pollen data further extends our knowledge of the representation of vegetation patterns in pollen data. Additionally, comparisons between plant diversity and palynological richness (pollen and spore diversity) provide initial insights into how pollen diversity data reflects vegetation diversity in a highly diverse area. The analysis of the record from Laguna Campana, located west of the PNP, yields a detailed environmental reconstruction for the study site over the past ca. 500 years and reveals continuous anthropogenic impact, which affected local vegetation development and biodiversity. Two pollen records from the Cerro Toledo area in the southern PNP reach back ca. 20,000 years ago and the analysis of these pollen records indicates changes in vegetation distribution and composition primarily due to past climate dynamics. The regional environmental reconstruction shows that during the LGM the UFL was located several hundred meters lower than its current level and that páramo vegetation widely dominated the landscape of the study region due to cold and wet climatic conditions. Rising temperatures since late glacial times led to a gradual shift of forest upslope. The results of this study clearly show that overall similarities between sites contrast with local differences in late Quaternary environmental history in the northern Andes and even within the study region. The high variety is caused by the complex and heterogeneous Andean habitats as well as by site-specific relevance and interactions of natural and anthropogenic factors determining vegetation patterns and developments. Modern pollen data analysis shows that vegetation patterns are generally well reflected by pollen deposition data, which contributes to the interpretative basis of the fossil pollen records. Finally, this study suggests that palynological richness as a measure for vegetation diversity in the research area is complex, and future investigations on this topic are necessary to elaborate on the preliminary results obtained so far. 3

Abstract:

Based on 5 pollen records from locations between ca. 2700 and 3300 masl in the Podocarpus National Park (PNP) area (ca. 4° S and 79° W) within the Andean depression region in southern Ecuador, we reconstructed and visualized upper forest line (UFL) dynamics and past vegetation changes since the last glacial maximum (LGM). Estimates of altitudinal ranges of past UFL shifts in the study area allowed reconstructing past changes of forest and páramo expansion in the study region. During the LGM, the UFL position in the PNP area was at least ca. 700 m lower in the northernmost part and ca. 250 m further south compared to today. Glaciers covered the central PNP at this time, while deglaciation completed with the beginning of the Holocene. Throughout the recorded time UFL shifts and vegetation changes in the study area showed considerable local differences. This can be explained by locally differing vegetation compositions and climatic conditions, but especially during early to late Holocene times also by human disturbances. Only during the earliest Holocene and mid-Holocene the UFL in the central and southern PNP areas reached slightly higher elevations up to 200 m above the present position. The UFL in the PNP area shifted altitudinally over a shorter interval compared to other sites outside the depression. This difference may be caused by the study regions relatively low mountain elevations, wet climatic conditions, different and diverse vegetation pattern as well as by the corresponding vegetation response to climatic changes. The high complexity and heterogeneity of Andean habitats are assumed to be responsible for the variety in altitudinal distribution and compositional changes of vegetation. In the PNP area and the Andean depression region temperature seems to be less important for the UFL and vegetation changes than in other regions of the northern Andes. Instead we assume that other drivers, e.g. precipitation and wind, may be much more important for the developments in our study region.

Abstract:

Die Bergregenwälder Südecuadors zählen zu den ?Biodiversitätshotspots? der Erde, sind jedoch gleichzeitig durch Abholzung in Gefahr, ihre ökosystemaren Funktionen zu verlieren. Hinzu kommt anthropogen verursachter, externer Stress, wie erhöhte Nährstoffeinträge, von denen erwartet wird, dass sie in den nächsten Jahren weiter zunehmen. Um deren Einfluss auf einen nährstoffarmen Bergregenwald in Südecuador zu untersuchen, wird in einem manipulativen Nährstoffexperiment (NUMEX) die bis zum Jahr 2050 erwartete jährliche Depositionsmenge von 50 kg ha-1 a-1 N, 10 kg ha-1 a-1 P sowie 10 kg ha-1 a-1 Ca manuell in den Wald eingebracht (N-, P-, N&P, Ca- und Kontrollplots in einem randomisierten Blockdesign). Für meine Arbeit habe ich für einen Zeitraum von vier Monaten (Ende April 2009 bis Ende August 2009), in dem die vierte der halbjährlichen Düngungen lag (Mitte Juli 2009) die Nährstoffkonzentrationen (o-PO4 3-, Pges, NO3 -, NH4 +, Nges, DON, K, Na, Mg, Ca, pH-Wert) im Freiland- (FN) und Bestandesniederschlag (BN) sowie im Streuperkolat (SP) und der Mineralbodenlösung (BL) in 0,15 und 0,3 m Tiefe bestimmt. Zusätzlich habe ich die Nährstoffflüsse im FN und BN sowie eine Kronenraumbilanz nach dem Modell von Ulrich (1983) berechnet. Mein Ziel war es, die verschiedenen Varianten mit der Kontrolle hinsichtlich ihrer Nährstoffkonzentrationen und ?flüsse zu vergleichen und eventuelle Effekte der vierten Düngung auf diese heraus zu arbeiten. Stark erhöhte Konzentrationen einiger Elemente (o-PO4 3-, Pges, NH4 +, Nges, DON) im FN im Zeitraum vor der Düngung, die sich zum Teil auch in den verschiedenen Kompartimenten des Waldes wiederfanden, überlagerten die Düngeeffekte. Einzig die NO3 --Konzentrationen im BN der N&P-Plots lagen in diesen Zeitraum beinahe signifikant über denjenigen der Kontrollplots (p = 0,072). Signifikante Unterschiede der mittleren Konzentrationen im SP zur Kontrollvariante gab es für die N-Plots (NO3 - -Konzentration, p = 0,020 bzw. 0,023 vor bzw. nach Düngung). Insgesamt lagen die mittleren Konzentrationen der gedüngten Elemente in der BL der jeweiligen Versuchsplots nicht signifikant höher als in den ungedüngten Kontrollplots. Sie wiesen jedoch durchgehend einen Trend zu leicht erhöhten Konzentrationen auf. Durch die Düngung mit NaH2PO4 und CaCl2 traten Nebeneffekte auf. Die mittleren Na-Konzentrationen in der BL, sowohl der P- als auch der N&P-Plots, unterschieden sich vor und nach Düngung signifikant von denen der Kontrolle. Die mittleren Cl--Konzentrationen im SP der Ca-Plots lagen im Zeitraum nach Düngung signifikant höher als die der Kontrolle. Die Düngung mit N, P und N&P führte zu einer verminderten Retention von Nges (N- und N&P-Plots) und Pges (P- und N&P-Plots) im Kronenraum und damit zu erhöhten Flüssen im Bestandesniederschlag. Die Kronenraum-Bilanz für Ca wurde durch Ca-Düngung positiver, es kam also zu einer verminderten Retention im Kronenraum, während durch N-, P- und N&P-Düngung eine verstärkte Retention zu beobachten war. Meine Ergebnisse bestätigen, dass nur wenig des eingebrachten Düngers die mächtige organische Auflage bis hin zum Mineralboden passiert, die Nährstoffe also im System zurückgehalten und aufgenommen werden. Direkte Effekte durch die vierte Düngung sind jedoch nur teilweise in den mittleren Konzentrationen nachweisbar, wahrscheinlich, weil der Zeitraum für die Probenahme nach Düngerapplikation zu kurz gewählt wurde oder die Düngung mit einer so geringen Menge zu nur wenig ausgeprägten Unterschieden führt.

Abstract:

Eois is a pantropical genus of Geometridae moths with currently 250 valid described species, the majority of which occur in the Neotropics. Eois is a prominent component of Andean moth communities locally accounting for up to ca. 10% of geometrid individuals. We address the evolution of wing patterns and host plant use in Neotropical Eois and provide a preliminary assessment on the monophyly and biogeographic history of the entire genus as well as affinities within the subfamily Larentiinae. We applied Bayesian, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony methods of phylogenetic reconstruction to a 142 taxon dataset of partial COI (1220 bp) and Ef1a (1066 bp) sequences resulting in the largest taxon set of geometrid moths analyzed in a molecular phylogenetic study so far. Monophyly of Eois was always strongly supported. Ten monophyletic clades were found with good support, seven of which have characteristic wing pattern phenotypes. Only one wing pattern type occurs in two clades. Trophic associations with representatives of the family Piperaceae occur in all 8 (of 9) Neotropical clades for which host information is available. Apart from feeding on Piper, at least two Eois species in Ecuador feed on Peperomia, and one on Manekia (all Piperaceae); two further species live on Hedyosmum (Chloranthaceae). Species feeding on Peperomia, Manekia and Hedyosmum are usually nested in Piper-associated clades. Single records of associations with Gesneriaceae and Monimiaceae are scattered in otherwise Piperaceae-associated clades. These patterns suggest multiple parallel host shifts away from Piper as ancestral food plant. Old World Eois were recovered as monophylum and sister to Neotropical Eois. Within the subfamily Larentiinae the genus Eois has previously been placed close to the tribe Eupitheciini, but this was not supported in our phylogenetic analyses.

Abstract:

La investigación se desarrolló con el propósito de disponer información sobre el efecto de las aplicaciones de N, P y Ca en el bosque sobre la lixiviación de cationes básicos (Ca++, Mg2+, K+, Na+) N y P, desde las capas orgánica y mineral (0,15 y 0,30 m) del suelo del bosque de la ECSF (al sur del Ecuador a 2 000 m.s.n.m.); y, su correspondencia con el incremento futuro de estos elementos en la atmósfera, como consecuencia de las emanaciones de las industrias, la volatilización desde el suelo por la aplicación de fertilizantes y el fenómeno de la Niña. Cuatro replicas en un bosque nativo fueron fertilizadas con 50 kg N.ha-1. año-1, 10 kg P.ha-1. año-1, la combinación de N/P y 10 kg Ca.ha-1. año-1 con urea 46% N, NaH2PO4.2H2O y CaCl2.2H2O, respectivamente. Cada muestra de agua colectada de las tres capas se realizo cada 15 días, se determino la concentración (mg/l) de Cl-, NH4+- N, NO3- - N, PO43- - P,Fósforo total, Nitrógeno total, Nitrógeno orgánico soluble (NO), K+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+y Carbono orgánico total. Tres meses después de la primera fertilización se registro un incremento de las concentraciones Cl- en el agua lixiviada de las capas orgánica y mineral (0, 15 y 0,30 m) en el tratamiento +Ca, atribuida al fertilizante aplicado (CaCl2). La ausencia de incrementos significativos de N, P y Ca en el agua lixiviada de las capas minerales llevan a asumir que las aplicaciones han sido retenidas en la capa orgánica y tomadas tanto por los microorganismos, como por las raíces de las plantas. El incremento significativo (p>0,05) en las concentraciones de K+ y Mg 2+ en la capa orgánica en el tratamiento +N+P y los tratamientos +N, +N+P y +Ca respectivamente, se atribuye a procesos de mineralización de la materia orgánica. El incremento del Na+ en las concentraciones del agua lixiviada de la capa orgánica en el tratamiento +N+P, se atribuye a la composición química del fertilizante aplicado (NaH2PO4). Los incrementos de las concentraciones de Ca2+ en el tratamiento +Ca sólo en el agua lixiviada de la capa orgánica se atribuye a la composición del fertilizante aplicado (CaCl2). La adición de Ca tuvo un positivo efecto en las concentraciones de carbono orgánico total (COT) en el agua lixiviada de la capa mineral (0,30 m) en el tratamiento +Ca. La ausencia de incrementos significativos de Na+, Ca2+ y Mg2+ en el agua lixiviada de las capas minerales (0,15 y 0,30 m) conduce a señalar que estos cationes fueron retenidos en el complejo de intercambio. En el testigo, las concentraciones promedio de Cl- (capa 0,30 m), PO4 3- , P total y Na+ (capas 0,15 y 0,30 m); y, NO y Nt (capa orgánica), fueron similares a aquellas reportadas por otros autores en el mismo bosque; las concentraciones promedio de Cl, NO - y NH4+ (capa orgánica y mineral 0,15 m); PO43- , P total, y K+ (capa orgánica); NO y Nt (capa 0,15 m); Mg2+, Ca2+ y COT en las tres capas fueron menores a las reportadas por otros autores en el mismo bosque; y, las concentraciones promedio Na (capa orgánica); y, K+ (capas 0,15 y 0,30 m) fueron mayores a las reportadas por otros autores en el mismo bosque.

Abstract:

En el Bosque de la Estación Científica San Francisco (ECSF) a una altitud de 2 000 m s.n.m. y como parte del proyecto NUMEX (experimento de manipulación de nutrientes), se realizó un estudio para conocer el efecto de la aplicación de N, P y Ca al suelo, con el propósito de disponer de información del efecto sobre las concentraciones de cationes básicos (Ca++, Mg++, K+, Na+), y del N y P, en la lluvia que atraviesa el dosel y en la hojarasca. Se realizaron colectas cada quince días y cada mes respectivamente, usando colectores de lluvia y canastillas para posteriormente ser analizadas mediante Espectrofotometría de Absorción Atómica para el K+, Na+, Mg++, Ca++, el Analizador Elemental para el carbono orgánico, y el Analizador de Flujo Continuo para el PO43-, Cl-, NH4+, NO3-, Fósforo total y Nitrógeno total. Obteniéndose como resultado que las concentraciones de cloro, ortofosfato, fósforo total, nitrato, y sodio no fueron estadísticamente significativas; el tratamiento +N fue significativamente mayor en las concentraciones de amonio y nitrógeno total, pero tuvo las concentraciones más bajas de magnesio y calcio; el tratamiento +N+P fue significativamente mayor en la concentración de nitrógeno orgánico soluble y potasio, y el testigo fue significativamente mayor en la concentración de carbono orgánico total en el agua de lluvia que atraviesa el dosel. Por otro lado la cantidad de hojarasca disminuyó después de la fertilización, por tanto las concentraciones de carbono, nitrógeno, fósforo, calcio, magnesio, potasio y sodio en la hojarasca no fueron significativas (p<0,01) para los diferentes tratamientos, y todos sus cantidades fueron menores a las reportadas por Wilcke en el en el mismo bosque.

Abstract:

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) depositions are expected to increase in the tropics as a consequence of increasing human activities in the next decades. In the literature, it is frequently assumed that tropical montane forests are N-limited, while tropical lowland forests are P-limited. In a low-level N and P addition experiment, we determined the short-term response of N and P cycles in a north Andean montane forest on Palaeozoic shists and metasandstones at an elevation of 2100m a.s.l. to increased N and P inputs. We evaluated experimental N, P and N+ P additions (50 kg ha&#8722;1 yr&#8722;1 of N, 10 kg ha&#8722;1 yr&#8722;1 of P and 50 kg + 10 kg ha&#8722;1 yr&#8722;1 of N and P, respectively) and an untreated control in a fourfold replicated randomized block design. We collected litter leachate, mineral soil solution (0.15 and 0.30m depths), throughfall and litterfall before the treatment began (August 2007) until 16 months after the first nutrient application (April 2009). Less than 10 and 1% of the applied N and P, respectively, leached below the organic layer which contained almost all roots and no significant leaching losses of N and P occurred to below 0.15m mineral soil depth. Deposited N and P from the atmosphere in dry and wet form were retained in the canopy of the control treatment using a canopy budget model. Nitrogen and P retention by the canopy were reduced and N and P fluxes in throughfall and litterfall increased in their respective treatments. The increase in N and P fluxes in throughfall after fertilization was equivalent to 2.5% of the applied N and 2% of the applied P. The fluxes of N and P in litterfall were up to 15% and 3%, respectively, higher in the N and N+ P than in the control treatments. We conclude that the expected elevated N and P deposition in the tropics will be retained in the ecosystem, at least in the short term and hence, N and P concentrations in stream water will not increase. Our results suggest that in the studied tropical montane forest ecosystem on Palaeozoic bedrock, N and P are co-limiting the growth of organisms in the canopy and organic layer.

Abstract:

In meiner Arbeit habe ich die Auswirkungen von meteorologischen Extremereignissen auf die Konzentrationen von Calcium, Magnesium, Natrium und Kalium in der Bodenlösung eines Untersuchungsgebietes in den ecuadorianischen Anden untersucht. Dazu wurden die Konzentrationen der basischen Elemente im Streuperkolat sowie in der Bodenlösung in 15 cm und 30 cm Mineralbodentiefe gemessen und unter verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten untersucht. Die Abhängigkeit der Nährstoffkonzentration von Ca, Mg, Na und K in der Bodenlösung vom Niederschlagsvolumen konnte bestätigt werden. Die Basenkonzentrationen in der Bodenlösung nahmen mit zunehmendem Niederschlagsvolumen ab. Gleichzeitig waren die Konzentrationen im Streuperkolat am höchsten und in der Bodenlösung in 30 cm Mineralbodentiefe am geringsten. Weitergehend habe ich geprüft, ob sich die Nährstoffkonzentrationen in der Bodenlösung nach einer Trockenphase sowie nach einer Feuchtphase voneinander unterscheiden. Es zeigte sich, dass die Basenkonzentrationen in der Bodenlösung während bzw. nach einer Trockenphase anstiegen. Während Feuchtphasen stiegen die Nährstoffkonzentrationen in der Bodenlösung zunächst an, fielen bei langanhaltenden Feuchtphasen jedoch ab. Je nach basischem Element lag die Konzentration in der Bodenlösung der Trockenphasen bis zu 7mal höher als die der Feuchtphasen. Bei dem Vergleich der Basenkonzentrationswerte im Streufall mit denen der Bodenlösung war eine jahreszeitliche Korrelation festzustellen. Eine niederschlagsbedingt hohe Streufallauflage erzeugte hohe Nährstoffkonzentrationen in der Bodenlösung der oberen Bodenschichten, wobei die Konzentrationswerte jedoch mit zunehmender Bodentiefe abnahmen. In meiner Untersuchung habe ich herausgefunden, dass extreme Trockenheit sowie starke Niederschläge starken Einfluss auf die Nährstoffkonzentrationen der Bodenlösung und damit auf die Nährstoffflüsse nehmen. Eine Veränderung der Trocken- und Feuchtverhältnisse des Klimas aufgrund des Weltklimawandels führt daher auch zu einer Änderung des Elementkreislaufs und somit des Waldökosystems.

Abstract:

New South American species are described, one in each of the following genera: Ficus, Helicostylis and Naucleopsis.

Abstract:

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) depositions are expected to increase in the tropics as a consequence of increasing human activities in the next decades. Furthermore, a possible shortened El Niño Southern Oscillation cycle might come along with more frequent calcium (Ca) depositions on the eastern slope of the Ecuadorian Andes originating from Saharan dust. It is crucial to understand the response of the old-growth montane forest in Ecuador to increased nutrient deposition to predict the further development of this megadiverse ecosystem. I studied experimental additions of N, P, N+P and Ca to the forest and an untreated control, all in a fourfold replicated randomized block design. These experiments were conducted in the framework of a collaborative research effort, the NUtrient Manipulation EXperiment (NUMEX). I collected litter leachate, mineral soil solution (0.15 and 0.30 m depths), throughfall and fine litterfall samples and determined N, P and Ca concentrations and fluxes. This approach also allowed me to assess whether N, P and/or Ca are limiting nutrients for forest growth. Furthermore, I evaluated the response of fine root biomass, leaf area index, leaf area and specific leaf area, tree diameter growth and basal area increment contributed from a cooperating group in the Ca applied and control treatments. During the observation period of 16 months after the first fertilizer application, less than 10, 1 and 5% of the applied N, P and Ca, respectively, leached below the organic layer which contained almost all roots but no significant leaching losses occurred to the deeper mineral soil. Deposited N, P and Ca from the atmosphere in dry and wet form were, on balance, retained in the canopy in the control treatment. Retention of N, P and Ca in the canopy in their respective treatments was reduced resulting in higher concentrations and fluxes of N, P and Ca in throughfall and litterfall. Up to 2.5% of the applied N and 2% of the applied P and Ca were recycled to the soil with throughfall. Fluxes of N, P and Ca in throughfall+litterfall were higher in the fertilized treatments than in the control; up to 20, 5 and 25% of the applied N, P and Ca, respectively, were recycled to the soil with throughfall+litterfall. In the Ca-applied plots, fine root biomass decreased significantly. Also the leaf area of the four most common tree species tended to decrease and the specific leaf area increased significantly in Graffenrieda emarginata Triana, the most common tree species in the study area. These changes are known plant responses to reduced nutrient stress. Reduced aluminium (Al) toxicity as an explanation of the Ca effect was unlikely, because of almost complete organocomplexation of Al and molar Ca:Al concentration ratios in solution above the toxicity threshold. The results suggest that N, P and Ca co-limit the forest ecosystem functioning in the northern Andean montane forests in line with recent assumptions in which different ecosystem compartments and even different phenological stages may show different nutrient limitations (Kaspari et al. 2008). I conclude that (1) the expected elevated N and P deposition will be retained in the ecosystem, at least in the short term and hence, quality of river water will not be endangered and (2) increased Ca input will reduce nutrient stress of the forest.

Abstract:

Cedrela montana is a deciduous broad-leaved tree species growing in the humid mountain rainforests of southern Ecuador. High-resolution dendrometer data indicate a regular seasonal growth rhythm with cambial activity during January to April. Amplitudes of daily radial stem diameter variations are correlated with the amount of the maximum daily vapour pressure deficit. During humid periods, daily stem diameter variations are considerably smaller than during drier periods. This indicates that cambial activity is limited by available moisture even in such a very humid mountain climate. Wood anatomical studies on microcores show the formation of a marginal parenchyma band at the beginning of the growth period. This parenchyma band can be used to delineate annual growth rings. We were able to establish the first ring-width chronology from Cedrela montana which covers the time until 1840. However, the chronology is presently statistically robust back to 1910 only. Correlation functions calculated with NCEP/NCAR data indicate a significantly positive relationship of tree growth with temperatures during the growth period during January to April. However, only 8% of the growth variance is explained by this climatic factor. In the future, this relationship may be useful to reconstruct past temperature conditions of the study area.