Environmental changes in biodiversity hotspot ecosystems of
South Ecuador: RESPonse and feedback effECTs (FOR2730)

Abstract:

Sustainable intensification of agricultural lands might reconcile the conservation of tropical forest with food production,but in-depth assessments considering uncertainty and extreme values are missing. Uncertainty prohibits mapping probabilities to potential future states or ranking these states in terms of their likelihood. This in turn hampers the assessment of possible decision outcomes. Here, we use simulations to investigate how uncertainty may influence the social acceptability of alternative land-use strategies to halt tropical deforestation (including sustainable intensification), based on indicators representing farmer satisfaction. The results show how extreme values (worst values) for indicators of farmer satisfaction may undermine the adoption of sustainable intensification. We demonstrate that a pure forest conservation strategy leads to lower food production, but outperforms a sustainable intensification strategy that maintains food security. Pure forest conservation performed better, i.e., could secure higher farmer satisfaction, than sustainable intensification across a range of indicator groups. This suggests strong barriers to achieving sustainable intensification. Using agricultural subsidies breaks the dominance of pure forest conservation by enhancing the economic returns of sustainable intensification. We discuss the importance of access to labor and farmers’ preferences for the use of already cleared lands, which achieved the worst values under sustainable intensification and conclude that any assessment of land-use strategies requires careful consideration of uncertainty and extreme values.

Abstract:

Abstract Conversion of tropical forests is among the primary causes of global environmental change. The loss of their important environmental services has prompted calls to integrate ecosystem services (ES) in addition to socio-economic objectives in decision-making. To test the effect of accounting for both ES and socio-economic objectives in land-use decisions, we develop a new dynamic approach to model deforestation scenarios for tropical mountain forests. We integrate multi-objective optimization of land allocation with an innovative approach to consider uncertainty spaces for each objective. These uncertainty spaces account for potential variability among decision-makers, who may have different expectations about the future. When optimizing only socio-economic objectives, the model continues the past trend in deforestation (1975–2015) in the projected land-use allocation (2015–2070). Based on indicators for biomass production, carbon storage, climate and water regulation, and soil quality, we show that considering multiple ES in addition to the socio-economic objectives has heterogeneous effects on land-use allocation. It saves some natural forest if the natural forest share is below 38%, and can stop deforestation once the natural forest share drops below 10%. For landscapes with high shares of forest (38%–80% in our study), accounting for multiple ES under high uncertainty of their indicators may, however, accelerate deforestation. For such multifunctional landscapes, two main effects prevail: (a) accelerated expansion of diversified non-natural areas to elevate the levels of the indicators and (b) increased landscape diversification to maintain multiple ES, reducing the proportion of natural forest. Only when accounting for vascular plant species richness as an explicit objective in the optimization, deforestation was consistently reduced. Aiming for multifunctional landscapes may therefore conflict with the aim of reducing deforestation, which we can quantify here for the first time. Our findings are relevant for identifying types of landscapes where this conflict may arise and to better align respective policies.

Abstract:

Increasing demands for livelihood resources in tropical rural areas have led to progressive clearing of biodiverse natural forests. Restoration of abandoned farmlands could counter this process. However, as aims and modes of restoration differ in their ecological and socio-economic value, the assessment of achievable ecosystem functions and bene?ts requires holistic investigation. Here we combine the results from multidisciplinary research for a unique assessment based on a normalization of 23 ecological, economic and social indicators for four restoration options in the tropical Andes of Ecuador. A comparison of the outcomes among afforestation with native alder or exotic pine, pasture restoration with either low-input or intense management and the abandoned status quo shows that both variants of afforestation and intense pasture use improve the ecological value, but low-input pasture does not. Economic indicators favour either afforestation or intense pasturing. Both Mestizo and indigenous Saraguro settlers are more inclined to opt for afforestation.

Abstract:

The tropical premontane and montane rainforests of south-eastern Ecuador constitute one of the most important hotspots of plant diversity. However, the Andes of Ecuador are known as the region with the highest deforestation rate in South America. The experience in international nature conservation during the past decades has shown that, to be effective, biodiversity conservation in inhabited areas should provide welfare through the use of forest for local peoples who coexist with it. Based on the foregoing, this study pursued the following targets: (1) to document the ethnobotany of the different ethnic groups who live in the area of study - namely the Shuar, the Saraguros, and the mestizos, (2) to analyze actual land use, and (3), to evaluate the suitability of the implementation of agroforestry systems, ecotourism, payments for environmental services, and bioprospecting as instruments in line with the ?protection by use? concept.

Abstract:

The tropical mountain rain forests in Southern Ecuador belong to one of the five global hot spots of biodiversity. At the same time it is one of the most endangered ecosystems in the world due to the continuous and accelerated deforestation over the last 50 years. The aim of this study was to contribute to a sustainable use of natural resources as well as to ask for sustainable strategies of land use in the tropical mountain rain forest, analyzing the use and the management of natural resources (forest, soil and water) by the Saraguros and Mestizos in the watershed of Tambo Blanco. The study area (115 Km²) is located in the Eastern Andes between 1,680 - 3,400 m a.s.l., representing an example of a new colonized region in the 1960s, which is part of the protected forest area Corazón de Oro and the Biosphere Reserve Podocarpus - El Cóndor. The investigation focused on the following topics: land use change since the beginning of the agricultural colonization, the use and the management of natural resources, the practices and strategies for the conservation of natural resources by the local people, as well as the evaluation of the use of natural resources forest, soil, and water under the terms of sustainability. The qualitative and quantitative land use change was analyzed for the years 1976, 1987 and 2001, through the use of remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS). Use and management of natural resources by the local people was evaluated on the basis of further geographical methods like observations, interviews (100 half standardized interviews, 20 expert interviews) and land use mapping. The results of land use change showed, that the tropical mountain rain forest had been reduced about 22 % (1,695.597 ha) during 25 years, representing an average of 67.82 ha/year, mainly due to the transformation of natural forests into pasture land. Páramo areas over 3,000 m a.s.l. remained almost unchanged. That indicates that the land use change was concentrated in the tropical mountain forest between 1,600 and 2, 800 m a.s.l. Overall, between 1976 and 2001, the rate of deforestation (0.99 %) was very high. How-ever, the first period between 1976 and 1987 showed a higher deforestation rate (1,16 %) than the last period between 1987 and 2001 (0,86 %). The main reasons for a decreasing deforestation rate seemed to be the establishment of livestock farming as well as the concomitant reduction of forestry, as a result of a deficiency of precious wood and a price decline of timber. Despite a diminishing timber industry over the last years, the establishment of livestock farming as the new principal economic activity has lead to a continuing deforestation of tropical mountain forests. The concentration in only one economical activity, like livestock farming does not resolve the problems of poverty in the investigation area. In addition, the local people depend mainly on one single economic activity and on the prices dictated by external markets. For SUMMARY 186 these reasons there is a continuous loss of traditional practices such as the cultivation in chacras und huertas for the subsistence of the family and, not least, a loss of biodiversity in the tropical mountain forests of Southern Ecuador. Despite these negative scenarios, it must be recognized, that the local people have also development practices and strategies for the conservation of natural resources throughout the accumulated experience of many decades. This includes, for example, reforestation, planting of ?living fences?, conservation of particular forest areas, introduction of silvopastoral systems, weed control with the machete instead of burning, sowing of fast growing grasses, rotation of pastures, use of organic fertilizer, etc. For a sustainable development within the study area, the solution of ecological and economical problems like poverty, unemployment and lack of education will be required. Therefore the cooperation of governmental and non-governmental organizations, research institutions and local people is very important. Despite the problems for sustainable development in tropical mountain forests, practical measures to overcome the problems can be identified, including reforestation with native tree species, the implementation of appropriate grazing systems like silvopastoral systems, and the conservation of water resources, at least in the higher parts of the watershed of Tambo Blanco. An economical sustainability could be achieved by the diversification of employment and income through the establishment of local trades and business, ecotourism and educational tourism, etc. Not least, the responsibility of the local people to protect the tropical mountain forest and their resources, including the development of environmental principles, the setting of limits concerning the use of natural resources and an implementation of environmental education, can contribute to the development of a social sustainability. Institutional sustainability can be achieved by resolving institutional conflicts, the utilization of the potential synergy of all organizations and the collaborations for sustainable development in Southern Ecuador as a common goal. For a successful and sustainable management within the Podocarpus - El Cóndor biosphere reserve, the integration of local knowledge and practical experience represent the main trigger, which form a basis for the sustainable use of natural resources in the tropical mountain forests.

Abstract:

The montane and premontane rainforests of southern Ecuador constitute a hotspot of biodiversity (cf. Brehm et al. 2008; Barthlott et al. 2007, Neill 2007). The use of plant resources from these forest areas is a fundamental part of the portfolio of livelihood activities of the local population. Increasing human activity however results in biodiversity loss. The extension of pastures and fields, logging, mining and the construction of roads represent the main threats to biodiversity in southern Ecuador. In order to develop conservation strategies it is of utmost importance to understand the plant and forest-use patterns of the inhabitants of this region. In this way, it will be possible to develop alternatives that consider local claims while conserving biodiversity (cf. Pohle et al. 2010). In this study ethnoecological and agrogeographical research methods have been used to make a qualitative analysis of the ethnospecific plant knowledge and plant use of the three main ethnic groups of southern Ecuador, namely the Shuar, the Saraguros and the Mestizos. This is followed by a discussion of the feasibility in the study sites of four so-called instruments for biodiversity conservation: agroforestry, ecotourism, payments for environmental services, and bioprospecting. The resulting ethnobotanical inventory includes 644 useful species and 16 main use categories. Edible and medicinal plants are the most important use categories. Ten percent of the identified species (64) has not been mentioned in the Encyclopaedia of the useful plants of Ecuador (de la Torre et al. 2008) so far. Herbs and trees represent the most common life forms used by all studied ethnic groups. The Shuar are traditional forest dwellers and have a comprehensive knowledge of plants: 316 different plant species with a total of 493 uses have been recorded. They are traditionally engaged in a number of livelihood activities that include fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants. They get more than 40% of the plant species they use from the forests. In addition, they cultivate plant species which cannot be sufficiently (e.g. edible plants) or promptly (e.g. medicinal plants, ritual and mythical plants, fish poisons) extracted from the forest. The high number and variety of uses (ranging from edible fruits to shampoos and insecticides) reflect their wide plant knowledge. Similar to other Amazonian cultures, the traditional subsistence system of the Shuar is based on a combination of home gardens, slash and burn cultivation in forest gardens and the extraction of resources from the forest. In recent times the Shuar have entered the market economy through the small-scale production of cash crops, cattle ranching, and logging. At present population levels, the traditional home and forest gardens represent sustainable production systems and places of great agrobiodiversity (Pohle et al. 2010; Pohle & Gerique 2008; 2006). Increased production of cash crops could however result in habitat destruction. In addition, cattle ranching and logging have a negative impact. Pasture land competes with forest for land and requires the clearing of large tracts of forest. Due to the logging commercial timber, species such as Terminalia amazonia, Platymiscium pinnatum or Cedrelinga cateniformes have been over-exploited. The Shuar have apparently over-exploited game species as well, a factor that may have consequences in plant diversity: The zoochory or dispersion of seeds and other diaspores by wild animals could have been negatively affected. The possible over-use of certain non-timber forest products such as palm hearts remains unclear. Without being ?ecologically noble savages? (cf. Alvard 1993) the Shuar are effective partners for biodiversity conservation. Their land use system can be considered sustainable (Pohle et al. 2010; Pohle & Gerique 2008; 2006; Rudel et al. 2002). The inventory of the Saraguros of El Tibio and El Cristal comprises 230 plant species with a total of 310 uses; among the Mestizo of Los Guabos, Sabanilla, El Retorno, and La Fragancia 312 useful species with a total of 409 uses has been recorded. The ethnobotanical knowledge of the Saraguro and the Mestizo settlers is generally similar. They make little use of forest plant resources; less than 10% of the species used by the Saraguros and 5% of the species used by the Mestizos are forest plants, mostly timber species. The forest is considered a reserve for new pasture and maize production. In contrast to the Shuar, who mainly use wild species collected in the forest, the Saraguros and the Mestizos make an extended use of wild species that grow in disturbed sites and pastures. Most relevant are cultivated species, which represent half of the plants used by both ethnic groups. Cultivated plants are used in cattle ranching (e.g. fodder species, shade trees, living fences), and secure and diversify food supplies and plant remedies. Both groups make an extended use of cultivated ornamental plants. In recent times some families have introduced new ornamental species and sell them outside the communities. The ethnobotanical survey suggests that ongoing acculturation processes result in the loss of plant knowledge. Their integration into the market economy has probably replaced traditional self-made products with goods acquired in market places, which results in a loss of plant knowledge among younger generations (Reyes García et al. 2005; Benz et al. 2000; Putsche 2000). Most Saraguros and Mestizos have arrived in the area of study over the past six decades; the first settlers were poor landless farmers searching for land. The removal of trees for grazing and agricultural lands was a basic requirement to prove possession of land in order to get property titles from the Ecuadorian State (Barsky 1988). As a result, large areas of montane forest were cleared by burning. In this way, both ethnic groups have transformed most of the pristine vegetation of their communities into pastures. The construction of the road between Loja and Zamora during the 1960s attracted more settlers; they worked as day laborers or, if they had enough capital, bought existing fincas (Pohle & Gerique 2006). The road also allowed the exploitation of timber, mainly of the romerillo species (Podocarpus oleifolius and Prumnopitys montana). While the basic food supply is guaranteed by cultivation in fields and home gardens, cattle raising is market oriented. Today it represents the main land use system among Saraguros and Mestizos and fulfills multiple objectives: the production of beef and dairy products provides households with a regular income, it awards a prestigious social status, and represents a way of accumulating wealth. However, the forest is basically considered to be a reserve for new land for pastures and agriculture. The Saraguros and the Mestizos jeopardize in this way the sustainability of their economic systems; the forest, which is its own resource base, is being reduced. On the basis of these findings, the implementation of the above mentioned instruments for biodiversity conservation is discussed. In the case of the Shuar, ways must be found to conserve their traditional ecological knowledge during their inevitable transition to modernity and the market economy. It is necessary to foster additional sources of income that improve human well being and the conservation of biodiversity, and that make non-traditional, non-sustainable practices such as cattle ranching unnecessary. Without sustainable income alternatives, market forces and the demographic pressure would lead to an intensification of logging, large scale agriculture, and mining activities. Community-based ecotourism appears, in the short term, to be the most promising sustainable source of alternative income, followed by the implementation of agroforestry systems in the medium term. Other options such as payments for environmental services (e.g. REDD programs) and bioprospecting ventures appear less attractive, as they are hostage to political interests, bad image and unclear legislation. In the case of the Saraguros and Mestizos, the actual land use system based on cattle ranching turns out to be incompatible with the conservation of forest resources and long term household prosperity. Its significance in local economies should thus be reduced through diversification. An agroforestry system that includes reforestation, restoration and connection of forest patches, and sustainable selective logging could be implemented in the medium term (cf. Günter et al. 2009; Knoke et al. 2009a; 2009b; Stimm et al. 2008; Weber et al. 2008; Aguirre et al. 2006; Cabrera et al. 2006). In the short term, improved pasture management (including leguminous trees and living fences with useful species), and the small-scale production of niche products in home gardens could be alternatives to cattle ranching (Pohle et al. 2010). Market surveys should be conducted to determine the niche products, and economic safety nets that secure the introduction and viability of alternative sustainable land use activities need to be put in place. Payments for environmental services (e.g. payments for watershed protection or the Ecuadorian Socio Bosque Program) are an example of a way of generating the seed money for such projects. A network of long-distance trails could represent another way of generating alternative income in the region through ecotourism. Finally, to reduce the high scepticism towards conservation, improved environmental education and a readjustment of the borders of disputed protective forest areas must be considered. The realignment needs to take into consideration the demands of long-term inhabitants to gain credence among the local population.

Abstract:

This paper analyses the effectiveness and distributional effects of payments to avoid tropical deforestation. As a first aspect, we investigated whether or not expected payments for avoided deforestation would be acceptable for tropical farmers in Southern Ecuador, with the study area located directly adjacent to the Podocarpus National Park. Second, we explored possible distributional effects resulting from voluntary or mandatory remuneration schemes to avoid deforestation. Finally, a productive sustainable land use was conceptualised to be combined with payments for avoided deforestation to avoid leakage (i.e. deforestation processes elsewhere when avoided at a given farm). Farm level land use scenarios with ("business as usual") and without deforestation ("conservation strategy") were compared. Compensation per Mg Carbon (C) that is not emitted into the atmosphere under the "conservation strategy" was derived to achieve a monetary land net present value (NPV, sum of discounted future net revenues) equal to the NPV obtained under "business as usual". Avoided carbon emissions were computed from above ground C in tropical forests of the project area and supplemented by information on soil carbon from another study. Economic data for cattle pasturing were obtained from a farm survey (130 households) to investigate distributional effects. To derive sustainable land use concepts, a risk sensitive bioeconomic farm model was used that considered effects of risk compensation when combining pasture with reforestation of abandoned farm lands and selective logging of natural forests. The results showed that only a few farmers (20 out of 130) would possibly accept a compensation price of US$ 10 per Mg avoided C emission, a C-compensation that is believed by other authors to reduce deforestation by 65%. Rather a compensation of around US$ 25 per Mg C was necessary to address compensation requirements of farmers who hold 50% of the tropical forest area in our study. The implementation of a voluntary remuneration scheme for avoided deforestation would not introduce systematic distributional effects (such as that only the biggest farmers would benefit from compensation), while a mandatory and enforced ban on deforestation coupled with a "fair" compensation payment equal to mean compensation requirements may lead to undesirable effects for many farmers. Finally, we demonstrate a mixed sustainable land use concept that depended on cheap credits for reforestation of abandoned pasture lands. This concept was able to stop farm level deforestation and to enlarge the economic value of farms through various combined land use options (agricultural and forestry options). The combination of land uses led to risk compensatory effects and a more efficient land use by reintegrating unproductive abandoned areas back into the economical process. In our conclusion a combination of payments for avoided deforestation along with productive land use concepts provided a viable solution for tropical forest conservation.

Abstract:

Este evento académico, que se inició el año pasado, busca establecer puentes de investigación y de comunicación entre distintas disciplinas y salud. En 2008 como señal de nuestra disposición al diálogo, escuchamos las miradas y los aportes de la ética, filosofía, sociología, ciencias políticas, psicología, historia, antropología, comunicación, economía y educación. Este año con la generosa y entusiasta participación de la Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño y Artes y la Escuela de Ciencias Geográficas, organizamos el Diálogo Académico 2009 con el título Miradas desde el territorio, la arquitectura, la geografía hacia la salud pública para mirar institucional y académicamente desde el territorio, el espacio y la geografía hacia la investigación, la gestión y las políticas de la salud pública. Seleccionamos territorio porque en el nuevo escenario político de cambios institucionales dispuestos en la Constitución vigente y en el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, se propone la Estrategia Territorial Nacional … “concebida como el conjunto de criterios específicos y lineamientos que articulan las políticas públicas a las condiciones y características propias del territorio y constituyen referentes sustantivos para las políticas sectoriales y territoriales”, una estrategia que evidentemente repercutirá en las condiciones de vida y la salud de la población. La aplicación de esta Estrategia Territorial Nacional requiere el mayor debate nacional para dotarla de la necesaria y suficiente legitimidad social que proporcione la máxima sustentabilidad política posible a los cambios institucionales que propone. Porque el territorio como nos recuerda la sociología es con la ley, la nación, la lengua, el ejército, un elemento fundamental de la vida social y un requisito en la construcción del Estado moderno. Más todavía si tenemos presente que la creación europea del Estado nacional unitario fue una construcción social violenta, que reconoció la apropiación del territorio por y para una sola nación con identidad plena, que había logrado excluir todo lo diferente a ella. Nosotros, Ecuador, que somos una realidad bastante distinta de la europea generadora de ese Estado nacional unitario, nosotros que somos diversos, pluriculturales, plurinacionales… requerimos saber las concepciones, las políticas, los imaginarios que sustentan la Estrategia Territorial Nacional, primordialmente las nociones de Estado y de construcci??n de un Estado que reconozcan y acepten la diversidad de entidades sociales de los pueblos, nacionalidades y culturas ecuatorianas. Por ello invitamos a la Senplades, para que nos presente los lineamientos generales de la Estrategia Nacional Territorial en el contexto del Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, del Plan para el Buen Vivir. Para conocer las respuestas de las instituciones de la salud a la Estrategia Nacional Territorial invitamos al Ministerio de Salud Pública, al Seguro General de Salud Individual y Familiar del IESS, al Seguro Social Campesino, a la Secretaría de Salud del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito. Los planteamientos institucionales de salud a la reforma territorial, en el contexto del acceso universal, la gratuidad, complementarán el marco institucional de reforma territorial relacionado con salud. El Instituto de Medicina Tropical Príncipe Leopoldo de Amberes Bélgica compartirá la experiencia internacional en la construcción de los distritos de salud, y la Organización Panamericana de la Salud expondrá el hospital como un espacio que promueve salud y enfatizará sobre las relaciones de interculturalidad, territorio y salud. Luego de las miradas institucionales, la Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño y Artes de la PUCE nos presentará las miradas de sus carreras y disciplinas porque como dice su misión: “No existe actividad del ser humano que no se realice en un espacio definido por una forma, sea esta arquitectónica o urbana, no existe actividad del ser humano que no necesite el soporte de una imagen o de un objeto, sea este de dos o tres dimensiones, y estos elementos tienden no solo a facilitar la realización de estas actividades desde una consideración utilitaria, sino que comportan una alta carga simbólica, de comunicación y estética, que contribuyen a la construcción de espíritus positivos y proactivos, que además, cuando estos elementos no son resueltos con adecuadas condiciones de pertinencia y calidad de vida, no generan expectativas, ahondan los complejos atávicos y nos llevan a la pobreza”. Cerrando este Diálogo Académico 2009, la Escuela de Ciencias Geográficas de la PUCE, que celebra 20 años de su creación, expondrá cómo este campo de conocimiento y de intervención disciplinar mira a la salud pública porque tal como dice el mensaje del director de esta escuela: “Actualmente se define a la Geografía como el estudio de las relaciones entre la sociedad humana y la naturaleza. Esta visión tiene tres posibilidades: la influencia de la naturaleza sobre el desarrollo de la humanidad; la acción del ser humano en la transformación de la naturaleza; y, la interacción entre factores naturales y humanos. Así la Geografía estudia el establecimiento, mantenimiento y la ruptura del equilibrio entre el ser humano y la naturaleza”. Así este Diálogo Académico 2009 pretende contribuir al debate, que con seguridad se abrirá en torno a la reforma territorial y a la nueva organización y distribución de servicios de salud, pretende aportar argumentos no solamente al debate de los cambios institucionales propuestos, sino también al debate de la participación social tan necesaria para la aceptación de toda reforma. Agradezco a las autoridades de la PUCE, al señor rector y a la Dirección General Académica por su permanente apoyo al Instituto de Salud Pública ISP, al decano de la Facultad de Medicina, al decano de Arquitectura, Diseño y Artes por su generosa participación, al director y a la comunidad académica que hacen la Escuela de Ciencias Geográficas, un agradecimiento especial por permitir sumarnos a la celebración de sus primeros veinte años de creación, aprovecho esta oportunidad para expresarles la felicitación del ISP. Agradezco a los auspiciantes de este Diálogo Académico: la PUCE, el IMT de Amberes, a la Cooperación para el Desarrollo del Gobierno de Bélgica, a la OPS, a los participantes de la Senplades, del MSP, del SGSIF/IESS, del SSC, SS/DMQ, del IMT, de la OPS, de la FADA y de la Escuela de Ciencias Geográficas, a los profesores extranjeros, a la infatigable coordinadora del evento Dra. Miriam Buitrón Vega y a los compañeros del ISP.

Abstract:

La tesis analiza la problemática de legalización de tierras de la comunidad de El Tibio (parroquia Imbana, cantón Zamora), que se encuentra dentro del Bosque Protector Corazón de Oro. Parte del aspecto del desconocimiento de la declaratoria de los habitantes, que se asientan en la zona mucho antes de la declaratoria del bosque protector. Con datos espaciales, históricos, se analiza cómo los aspectos políticos no consideran la realidad de los pobladores de zonas rurales, que en la actualidad se considera de alta importancia ambiental.